CLASSIFICATION OF AERIAL LASER SCANNING POINT CLOUDS USING MACHINE LEARNING: A COMPARISON BETWEEN RANDOM FOREST AND TENSORFLOW

International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences

Pirotti, F.^1^2,25,255  Tonion, F.^1^5,51,519 

[1] Binghamton University^204;New York State Education Department-Office of Professions^199;A full list of authors and their affiliations appears at the end of the paper^370;A full list of authors appears at the end of the paper^388;AIST – National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan^435;ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Australia^177;ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia^67;Abteilung Forstgenetik und Forstpflanzenzüchtung, Universität Göttingen, Büsgenweg 2, 37077 Göttingen, Germany^503;Academia Militar, R. Gomes Freire 203, 1169-203 Lisboa, Portugal^576;Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands^175;Accademia dei Georgofili – Florence, Italy^235;AgeLab, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA^169;Agriculture Information Institute, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Science, Beijing 100086, China^616;Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, 27568 Bremerhaven, Germany^408;AltaRock Energy, Seattle, WA, USA^433;Altai State University, Lenina, 61, Barnaul 656049, Russia^450;Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems CRC, University of Tasmania, Hobart, 7001, TAS, Australia^333;Antarctic Research Centre, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand^390;Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Heights 2234, Australia^250;Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia^329;BRGM, Avenue C. Guillemin, 45100 Orléans, France^284;Basque Meteorology Agency (EUSKALMET), Vitoria-Gasteiz, Basque Country, Spain^231;Bassett Healthcare Network – Bassett Medical Center^200;Behavioural Ecology and Sociobiology Unit, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany^543;Beijing Key Laboratory for Architectural Heritage Fine Reconstruction & Health Monitoring, Beijing, 102616, China^634;Beijing Key Laboratory of Behavior and Mental Health, Peking University, Beijing, China^173;Beijing Satellite Navigation Center, Beijing, China^630;Belgian National Fund of Scientific Research, rue d'Egmont, 5, 1000 Brussels, Belgium^493;Berkeley Geochronology Center, 2455 Ridge Rd., Berkeley CA 94709, USA^375;Biodiversity Institute and Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, The University of Kansas, Dyche Hall, Lawrence, Kansas 66045–7561, USA^458;Bioengineering Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA^37;Biological Psychology and Neuropsychology, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany^138;British Antarctic Survey, Cambridge, CB3 0ET, UK^331;British Geological Survey, UK^364;Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie (BKG), Richard-Strauss-Allee 11, 60598 Frankfurt, Germany^310;CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China^13;CEED, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway^334;CEN, Meteorological Institute, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany^473;CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany^464;CEREA, Joint Laboratory École des Ponts ParisTech and EDF R&D, Université Paris-Est, Champs-sur-Marne, France^465;CERFACS, Toulouse, France^466;CFE – Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal^505;CHRU-Nancy, Service de Neurologie, F-54000, Nancy, France^187;CIRAD, Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso^211;CIRGEO - Interdepartmental Research Center of Geomatics, University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, Legnaro (PD), Italy^645;CMLA, ENS Cachan, CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 94235 Cachan, France^223;CNRS (Integrative Neuroscience and Cognition Center, UMR 8002), Paris, France^193;CNRS (Laboratoire Psychologie de la Perception, UMR 8242), Paris, France^124;COMiB - Optics and Optometry Research Center, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy^116;CREATE for STEM Institute, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA^527;CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa-403 004, India^427;California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA^409;Canadian Action and Perception Network (CAPnet)^64;Castleton University^198;Center for Advanced Marine Core Research, Kochi University, Nankoku, Japan^425;Center for Advanced Retinal and Ocular Therapeutics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA^5;Center for Atmosphere Ocean Science, Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences, New York University, New York, USA^230;Center for Behavioral Brain Sciences, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany^103;Center for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada^96;Center for Computing in Science Education & Department of Physics, University of Oslo, N-0316 Oslo, Norway^526;Center for Desert Agriculture, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia^586;Center for Global Sea Level Change, NYUAD Institute, New York University Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates^227;Center for Mind and Brain, University of California, Davis, CA, USA^39;Center for Mind/Brain Sciences (CIMeC), University of Trento, Rovereto, Italy^160;Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA^6;Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China^481;Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA^31;Center of Excellence for Climate Change Research, Department of Meteorology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia^238;Centre Européen de Recherche et d'Enseignement des Géosciences de l'Environnement, Aix-en-Provence, France^367;Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse Cedex, France^26;Centre for Advanced Modelling and Geospatial Information Systems (CAMGIS), Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney, 2007 NSW, Australia^591;Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway^536;Centre for Elite Performance, Expertise and Training (CEPET), Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia^68;Centre for Elite Performance, Training & Expertise, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia^179;Centre for Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK^69;Centre for Marine Science and Technology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia^549;Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada^63;Centre for the Mathematics of Planet Earth, University of Reading, Reading, UK^463;Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Zonas Áridas (CEAZA), Raúl Bitrán 1305, La Serena, Chile^266;Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Boulevard Juriquilla No. 3001, Querétaro 76230, México^385;Centro para la Nanociencia y la Nanotecnología, CEDENNA, Santiago, Chile^496;Chair for Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Split, Sinjska 2, 21000 Split, Croatia^530;Climate Impacts Group, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA^403;Cluster of Excellence, Cognitive Interaction Technology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany^20;Cognitive Ethology Laboratory, German Primate Center (DPZ), Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany^535;Cognitive Science Program and Department of Psychology, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey^182;Cognitive Science Program, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey^180;Cognitive Systems Group, Department of Computer Science, Reutlingen University, Germany^82;Collaborative Innovation Center of Geospatial Technology, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China^584;Collections and Systematics Department, Icelandic Institute of Natural History, Gardabaer, Iceland^356;College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China^313;College of Computer Science and Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China^468;College of Dentistry, New York University, New York, NY, USA^38;College of Electronic and Information Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, China^623;College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, Saint Petersburg, FL 33701, USA^410;College of Survey and Geoinformation, Tongji University, 200092 Shanghai, China^640;Computational Seismology, Institute of Geophysics, Department of Earth Sciences, ETH Zürich, Sonneggstrasse 5, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland^485;Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA^168;Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Institute of Neuroscience, Pisa, Italy^77;Continental Scientific Drilling Coordination Office and LacCore Facility, N.H. Winchell School of Earth Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA^383;Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES), University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA^246;D Optical Metrology (3DOM) unit, Bruno Kessler Foundation (FBK), Trento, Italy^560;D.O. Terre et Histoire de la Vie, Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique, Brussels, 1000, Belgium^454;DLR, Department of Photogrammetry and Image Analysis, Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany^551;DOSECC Exploration Services, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA^357;Decker School of Nursing^203;Departament of Civil and Environmental Engineering, UPC-BarcelonaTECH, C. Jordi Girona 1–3, 08034 Barcelona, Spain^282;Departamento de Física, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile^495;Departamento de Física, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile^494;Departemento de Paleontología de Vertebrados, Museo de Historia Natural-Universidad, Lima, 15072, Peru^457;Department F.-A. Forel for Aquatic and Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, 66 Boulevard Carl Vogt, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland^292;Department Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA^75;Department for Management of Science and Technology Development, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam^592;Department of Agricultural and Forestry scieNcEs (DAFNE), University of Tuscia, Via San Camillo de Lellis, 01100 Viterbo, Italy^609;Department of Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum, Khartoum North 13314, Sudan^620;Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, University of Zagreb, Unska 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia^528;Department of Applied and Environmental Biology, Rivers State University of Science and Technology, P.M.B. 5080 Nkpolu, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria^511;Department of Architecture, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia^220;Department of Arid Land Agriculture, Faculty of Meteorology, Environment & Arid Land Agriculture, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, 21589, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia^588;Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, 20742, USA^488;Department of Biology, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, USA^519;Department of Biology, Utah State University, 5305 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322-5305, USA^445;Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada^45;Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA^147;Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands^542;Department of Brain & Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA^30;Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA^170;Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA^134;Department of Civil Engineering, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada^558;Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hydrosystems Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA^276;Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA^399;Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA^302;Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H4K5, Canada^318;Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland^214;Department of Cognitive Sciences and Institute of Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA^18;Department of Computer Science, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel^154;Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Purdue University, 100 N. University St., West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA^517;Department of Data Analysis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium^131;Department of Earth Science & Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK^415;Department of Earth Sciences and Saint Anthony Falls Laboratory, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA^255;Department of Earth Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA^421;Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, 13 rue des Maraîchers, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland^291;Department of Earth Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA^429;Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, 22 Russell Street, ON, M5S 3B1, Canada^430;Department of Earth Sciences, University of Western Cape, Private Bag X17 Bellville 7535 South Africa^619;Department of Earth Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands^419;Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48859, USA^378;Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, 47405, USA^300;Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada^293;Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA^301;Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Rutgers University, New Jersey, USA^366;Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Purdue University, Indiana, USA^369;Department of Earth, Environmental and Planetary Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA^274;Department of Education, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts 02155, USA^518;Department of Electrical Engineering, Port-Said University, Port Said, Egypt^614;Department of Electronic and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China^500;Department of Experimental-Clinical and Health Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium^128;Department of Forest Harvesting, Logistics and Ameliorations, Faculty of Forestry, Technical University in Zvolen, 96053 Zvolen, Slovakia^579;Department of Forest Management and Geodesy, Faculty of Forestry, Technical University in Zvolen, 96053 Zvolen, Slovakia^577;Department of General Psychology and Methodology, University of Bamberg, Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany^100;Department of Geodesy and Geoinformation, Technische Universität Wien, 1040 Vienna, Austria^600;Department of Geodetic Engineering, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia^565;Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada^555;Department of Geography, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA^245;Department of Geography, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA^294;Department of Geography, University of Durham, Durham DH1 3LE, UK^332;Department of Geography, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA^229;Department of Geography, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand^397;Department of Geography, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland^210;Department of Geography, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland^205;Department of Geological Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA^247;Department of Geology & Geophysics, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA^423;Department of Geology and Geophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, 77843, USA^299;Department of Geology and Geophysics, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, 77843, USA^297;Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA^342;Department of Geology and Petroleum Geology, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK^338;Department of Geology, Hydrosystems Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA^277;Department of Geology, University of Leicester, UK^365;Department of Geology, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand^394;Department of Geomatics, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan^564;Department of Geomatics, National Cheng-Kung University, 701, No. 1, University Road, Tainan City, Taiwan^580;Department of Geomatics, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada^612;Department of Geophysics, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401-1887, USA^422;Department of Geoscience, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark^249;Department of Geosciences and MARUM, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany^349;Department of Geosciences, University Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany^252;Department of Geosciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA^374;Department of Geosciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 72701, USA^298;Department of Geosciences, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland^216;Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA^345;Department of Geosciences, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1047, Blindern, Oslo 0316, Norway^379;Department of Geosciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA^372;Department of Geosciences, University of Tuebingen, Wilhelmstrasse 56, 72074 Tuebingen, Germany^263;Department of Geosciences, Universität Tübingen, 72074, Germany^311;Department of Human Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands^22;Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, the Netherlands^270;Department of Hydraulic Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Hydroscience and Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China^273;Department of Immunobiology, Biomedical Primate Research Centre, Rijswijk, the Netherlands^541;Department of Kinesiology, Movement Control and Neuroplasticity Research Group, and Leuven Brain Institute, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Leuven, Belgium^65;Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, 9054, New Zealand^393;Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Reading, Reading, UK^462;Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada^47;Department of Natural History and Palaeontology, the Museum of Southern Jutland, Gram, 6100, Denmark^453;Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA^57;Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA^33;Department of Neurophysiology and Pathophysiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany^118;Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, SUNY Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA^165;Department of Neuroscience, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA^133;Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada^93;Department of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada^92;Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada^94;Department of Ophthalmology, First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China^71;Department of Ophthalmology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA^4;Department of Paleoclimate Dynamics, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany^253;Department of Philosophy, Latrobe University, Melbourne, Australia^219;Department of Physical Geography, Geosciences, Goethe University, Altenhoeferallee 1, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany^269;Department of Physical Geography, Geosciences, Goethe University, Altenhoeferallee 1, 60438 Frankfurt/Main, Germany^267;Department of Physical Geography, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80115, 3508 TC Utrecht, the Netherlands^272;Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA^522;Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824, USA^525;Department of Physics and Astronomy, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48825, USA^521;Department of Physics and Astronomy, Purdue University, 525 Northwestern Ave., West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, USA^516;Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA^524;Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb, Bijenicka 32, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia^529;Department of Physics, Philipps-Universität, Marburg, Germany^121;Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Canada^368;Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland^497;Department of Physics, and STEM Transformation Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, 33199, USA^515;Department of Physiology, Development & Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK^70;Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA^132;Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA, USA^51;Department of Psychology & Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA^58;Department of Psychology University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA^149;Department of Psychology and Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA^106;Department of Psychology and Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Canada^50;Department of Psychology and National Magnetic Resonance Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey^163;Department of Psychology and the Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA^11;Department of Psychology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon^156;Department of Psychology, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany^19;Department of Psychology, Center for Integrative Neuroscience, University of Nevada, Reno, USA^185;Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, UK^61;Department of Psychology, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany^178;Department of Psychology, Justus Liebig Universität Giessen, Giessen, Germany^89;Department of Psychology, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany^162;Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA^9;Department of Psychology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA^23;Department of Psychology, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China^129;Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA^10;Department of Psychology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR^42;Department of Psychology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan^166;Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA^40;Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA^29;Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China^14;Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA^24;Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA^1;Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA^190;Department of Silviculture and Nature Conservation, University of Chile, Av. Santa Rosa 11315, La Pintana, Santiago RM, Chile^264;Department of Sociobiology/Anthropology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany^546;Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada^556;Department of Translational Research on New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy^76;Department of Vegetables, Faculty of Agriculture, Assiut University, 71526, Assiut, Egypt^589;Department of Water Science and Engineering, IHE-Delft, P.O. Box 3015, 2601 DA Delft, the Netherlands^271;Department of Zoological Sciences, Addis Ababa University, P.O. 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Zealand^361;Georges Lemaître Centre for Earth and Climate Research, Earth and Life Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, 1348, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium^492;Geoscience Australia, GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT 2609, Australia^424;Geotech Group, Aerospace Engineering School, University of Vigo, Ourense, Spain^598;Geotech Group, Mining and Energy Engineering School, University of Vigo, Vigo, Spain^596;Geothermal Research Cluster (GEORG), Reykjavik, Iceland^350;Glenrose Rehabilitation Hospital, Alberta Health Services, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada^48;Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada^95;Gruenstifter, Proskauer Str. 24, 10247 Berlin, Germany^538;Guangxi Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Engineering Safety, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China^315;Géolithe, Crolles, France^285;Géosciences Azur, CNRS UMR 7329, OCA/Université de Nice, 250 rue Albert Einstein, 06905 Sophia-Antipolis CEDEX, France^283;Géosciences Montpellier, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France^418;Géosciences Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, University of Antilles, Montpellier, France^363;Géosciences Rennes, Univ. Rennes, CNRS, UMR 6118, 35000 Rennes, France^446;HS Orka, Svartsengi, Iceland^436;Hawaii Groundwater and Geothermal Resources Center, University of Hawai`i at Manoa, 1680 East West Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA^341;Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA^105;Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany^346;Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, German Research Center for Geosciences (GFZ), Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany^259;Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ), Section 1.2: Global Geomonitoring and Gravity Field, c/o DLR Oberpfaffenhofen, Münchener Strasse 20, 82234 Wessling, Germany^305;Helmholtz Zentrum Potsdam, GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam, 14473 Potsdam, Germany^256;Helmholtz-Zentrum Potsdam, Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum, Potsdam, Germany^339;Howard Hughes Medical Institute, New York University, New York, NY, USA^7;Human Vision and Eye Movement Laboratory, Departments of Medicine (Neurology), Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada^111;Hungarian Meteorological Service, Budapest, Hungary^225;IBF Servizi S.p.a., 44037 Jolanda di Savoia, Ferrara, Italy^611;IDECC – Institute for Development, Ecology, Conservation and Cooperation, via G. Tomasi di Lampedusa 33, 00144 Rome, Italy^510;IMT School for Advanced Studies Lucca, Lucca, Italy^139;INGV – Osservatorio Vesuviano, Naples, Italy^438;INPT-IRIT, Toulouse, France^467;IQ-Hydrology, Ben van Londenstraat 48, 6709 TM Wageningen, the Netherlands^320;IREA CNR, Istituto per il Rilevamento Elettromagnetico dell’Ambiente, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 20133 Milano, Italy^608;IRPI-CNR, Istituto di Ricerca per la Protezione Idrogeologica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, 10135, Torino, Italy^610;ISAE-Supaéro, Université Fédérale de Toulouse, Toulouse, France^188;ITC, University of Twente, Hengelosestraat 99, 7514 AE, Enschede, The Netherlands^581;Infection Biology Unit, German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, 37077 Göttingen, Germany^532;Institut Universitaire de France, Paris, France^159;Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Paris, France^437;Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Université Paris Diderot, CNRS (UMR 7154), Paris, France^487;Institut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg, CNRS UMR 7516, EOST/Université de Strasbourg, 5 rue Descartes, 67084 Strasbourg CEDEX, France^278;Institut de la Vision, Paris, France^28;Institut für Erd- und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany^257;Institut für Geographie und Geologie, Universität Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany^362;Institut für Populations- und ökologische Genetik, Am Pfingstanger 58, 37075 Göttingen, Germany^502;Institute for Computing, Information and Cognitive Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada^97;Institute for Environmental Analytics, Reading, UK^244;Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Boulevard Carl-Vogt 66, 1205 Geneva, Switzerland^288;Institute for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research, Austrian Acadamy of Sciences, Innsbruck, Austria^636;Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS), University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia^417;Institute for Psychology and Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Muenster, Münster, Germany^99;Institute of Biology II, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany^153;Institute of Biology, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany^102;Institute of Biometeorology of the National Research Council (IBIMET-CNR) – Florence, Italy^233;Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, UK^88;Institute of Earth and Environmental Science, Potsdam University, Potsdam, Germany^261;Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland^217;Institute of Geography, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria^635;Institute of Geological Sciences, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 1+3, 3012, Bern, Switzerland^290;Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Electronics, and Applied Mathematics and Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, B-1348 Louvain-La-Neuve, Belgium^62;Institute of Life Sciences and Technologies, Daugavpils University, Vienības 13, Daugavpils, 5401, Latvia^439;Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences and Ministry of Water Conservancy, Chengdu 610041, China^317;Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK^60;Institute of Numerical Mathematics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Gubkina 8, Moscow 119333, Russia^475;Institute of Photogrammetry and GeoInformation, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Germany^624;Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany^605;Institute of Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany^122;Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China^130;Institute of Psychology, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany^191;Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Frunze Street 11, Novosibirsk 630091, Russia^449;Institute of Systematics and Ecology of Animals, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Frunze Street, 11, Novosibirsk 630091, Russia^440;Instituto de Ciencias Básicas e Ingeniería, Museo de Paleontología, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Mineral de la Reforma, Hidalgo, Mexico^459;Interdepartmental Research Center of Geomatics (CIRGEO), University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, Legnaro (PD) 35020, Italy^613;International Center of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), P.O. Box 30772, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya^618;International Max Planck Research School on Earth System Modelling, Hamburg, Germany^472;Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), 00143 Rome, Italy^398;Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokohama 236-0001, Japan^411;Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology (JAMSTEC), Yokohama, 236-0001, Japan^491;Jarðtaeknistofan, (GEOICE Geological Services Ltd), Hafnarfjörður, Iceland^354;Jasti V Ramanamma Children's Eye Care Center, Child Sight Institute, LV Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad, India^140;K.G. Jebsen Centre for Deep Sea Research, Department of Earth Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway^355;Key Laboratory for Urban Geomatics of Ministry of Natural Resources, Beijing, 102616, China^633;Key Laboratory of Agricultural Big Data, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Beijing 100086, China^617;Key Laboratory of Disaster Prevention and Structural Safety of Ministry of Education, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China^314;Key Laboratory of Ocean Circulation and Waves, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China^479;Kochi Institute for Core Sample Research, JAMSTEC, Nankoku, Kochi 783-8502, Japan^412;Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon, 21990, Korea^401;LJK, Université Grenoble Alpes, 700 Avenue Centrale, 38401 Domaine Universitaire de Saint-Martin-d'Hères, Grenoble, France^478;Laboratoire Vision Action Cognition, EA 7326, Institut de Psychologie, Institut de Neurosciences et Cognition (INC), Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne-Paris-Cité, Boulogne-Billancourt, France^158;Laboratoire d'Aérologie, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, Toulouse, France^228;Laboratoire de Géologie de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Ecole Normale Supṕrieure de Lyon, Lyon, France^486;Laboratoire de Géologie, Ecole Normale Supérieure, 24 Rue Lhomond, 75000, Paris, France^260;Laboratory Animal Sciences Unit, German Primate Center, 37077 Göttingen, Germany^533;Laboratory for Psycholinguistic Research, Department of Speech and Language Pathology, University of Zagreb, Borongajska cesta 83h, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia^531;Laboratory of Brain Processes (LOBES), Center for Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Brain Imaging, and Departments of Psychology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA^15;Laboratory of Geo-Information Science and Remote Sensing, Wageningen University, P.O Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, the Netherlands^615;Laboratory of Hydraulics, Hydrology and Glaciology (VAW), ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland^215;Laboratory of Monitoring and Environmental Modelling for the Sustainable Development (LaMMA consortium) – Sesto Fiorentino – Florence, Italy^234;Laboratory of Photogrammetry, National Technical University of Athens (NTUA), Athens, Greece^561;Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University, Palisades, NY 10964, USA^371;Land Surveys, 19 Brennan Way, Belmont WA 6104, Australia^607;Laserdata GmbH, Innsbruck, Austria^637;Leibniz Institute for Research on Society and Space, Erkner, Germany^208;Lemoyne College^202;Liverpool John Moores University, School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool, UK^146;Lyman Briggs College, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48825, USA^520;MARE – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-517 Coimbra, Portugal^504;MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany^380;MINES ParisTech, PSL Research University, O.I.E. – Centre for Observation, Impacts, Energy, Antipolis, France^241;Maine Center for Research in STEM Education, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04469, USA^523;Marine Parade, Macandrew Bay, Dunedin, New Zealand^395;Martin-Luther-Universität, Halle-Wittenberg, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Von-Seckendorff-Platz 3, 06120 Halle (Saale), Germany^386;Matís, Exploration & Utilization of Genetic Resources, Reykjavík, Iceland^347;Max Planck Institute for Biological Cybernetics, Tübingen, Germany^83;McGill Vision Research, Department of Ophthalmology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada^74;McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, China^172;Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Pennsylvania, 220 S 33rd St, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA^287;Meridian Energy, Twizel, 7901, New Zealand^402;Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, UK^240;Met Éireann, 65/67 Glasnevin Hill, Dublin 9, D09Y921, Ireland^221;Meteorological Institute, CEN, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany^471;Meteorological Research Institute, Japan Meteorological Agency, Tsukuba, 305-0052, Japan^490;Meteorology Area, Energy and Environment Division, TECNALIA R & I, Vitoria-Gasteiz, Basque Country, Spain^232;Mobile Mapping Lab, Department of Geography and Environmental Management, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada^626;Moscow Institute for Physics and Technology, 9 Institutskiy per., Dolgoprudny, Moscow Region, 141701, Russia^477;Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Berlin, Germany^447;Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Invalidenstraße 43, 10115 Berlin, Germany^443;NTT Communication Science Laboratories, Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, Kanagawa, Japan^107;NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science, New York University Shanghai, Shanghai, PRC^98;Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, Thormøhlens gate 47, 5006 Bergen, Norway^265;National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research, Vāsco Da Gāma, Goa-403 804, India^413;National Engineering Research Center for Geographic Information System, Wuhan, China^628;National Institute of Water and Atmosphere, Wellington, 6021, New Zealand^404;National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, University of Southampton, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK^382;National Research Council (CNR) Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Rome, Italy^512;Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 1350, Denmark^452;Natural History Museum of Utah and Department of Geology & Geophysics, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, USA^376;Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, the Netherlands^174;Neural Science Program, NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science, New York University Shanghai, Shanghai, PRC^43;NeuroMI - Milan Center for Neuroscience, Milano, Italy^112;Neurobiopsychology, Institute of Cognitive Science, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany^117;Neuropsychology Unit, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy^114;Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA^36;Neuroscience Institute, NYU Langone Medical Center, New York, NY, USA^12;Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada^49;Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands^52;Neurosciences Graduate Program, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA^59;Nordvulk, Institute of Earth Sciences, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland^343;Norsar, Gunnar Randers Vei 15, 2007 Kjeller, Norway^280;Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China^484;Optometry and Vision Science, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia^126;Oregon State University, College of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, Corvallis, OR, USA^432;Organic Geochemistry Group, MARUM Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany^416;Otto Creutzfeldt Center for Cognitive and Behavioral Neuroscience, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany^192;Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, NOAA, Seattle, WA 98115, USA^405;Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA^431;Paralign, Inc., San Francisco, CA, USA^151;Perception in Action Research Centre & Department of Cognitive Science, Faculty of Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia^176;Perception in Action Research Centre (PARC), Department of Cognitive Science, Faculty of Human Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia^66;Petrified Forest National Park, Petrified Forest, AZ 86028, USA^377;Polar Research Institute of China, Shanghai, 200136, China^483;Politecnico di Torino, DIATI, Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering. Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24, 10129 Torino, Italia^570;Politecnico di Torino, DIST, Interuniversity Department of Regional and Urban Studies and Planning. Viale Pier Andrea Mattioli, 39,10125 Torino, Italia^571;Preferred Mutual Insurance Company^196;Present address: Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, USA^148;Present address: Center for Perceptual Systems, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA^8;Present address: Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium^189;Present address: Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, London, UK^181;Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center (DPZ), Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Kellnerweg 4, 37077 Göttingen, Germany^539;Primate Genetics Laboratory, German Primate Center, Göttingen, Germany^544;Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA^104;Program in Neurosciences and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada^91;Psychological Sciences Research Institute & Institute of Neuroscience, University of Louvain, Belgium^184;Psychology Department, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy^115;Psychology Department, Università La Sapienza, Roma, Italy^113;Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266071, China^482;RIKEN Advanced Institute for Computational Science, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan^489;RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project, Goal-Oriented Technology Research Group, Disaster Resilience Science Team, Tokyo 103-0027, Japan^590;RSS-Hydro Sarl-S, Dudelange Innovation Hub, route de Volmerange, L-3593 Dudelange, Luxembourg^567;RSS-Remote Sensing Solutions Gmbh, Dingolfinger Str. 9, 81673 Munich, Germany^621;Radboud University, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, the Netherlands^21;Research Center for Advanced Science and Technology, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan^110;Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra 0200, Australia^251;Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra, 0200, Australia^406;Research Unit Engineering Science, University of Luxembourg, 6 rue Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi, L-1359 Luxembourg^566;Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität, Bonn, Germany^448;Royal Meteorological Institute of Belgium, Brussels, Belgium^470;STEM Transformation Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, USA^514;SUNY Polytechnic^194;SUPA, Institute for Complex Systems and Mathematical Biology, King's College, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK^461;Sapienza School for Advanced Studies, Rome, Italy^553;Scheie Eye Institute, Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA^2;Schmalhausen Institute of Zoology, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, B. Khmel'nyts'koho 15, Kiev 01601, Ukraine^451;School of Arts and Design, Zhengzhou University of Light Industry, Zhengzhou, Henan, China^17;School of Biology and Environmental Science, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland^587;School of Civil Engineering, The University of Queensland, St Lucia QLD, 4072, Australia^396;School of Computer Science, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China^582;School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, Northern Arizona University, AZ 86011, USA^400;School of Earth Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia^324;School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia^328;School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2522, Australia^248;School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK^638;School of Environment Science, Nanjing Xiaozhuang University, 211171 Nanjing, China^601;School of Environment, The University of Auckland, Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1142, New Zealand^428;School of Geodesy and Geomatics, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China^642;School of Geographic and Environmental Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China^572;School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1SS, UK^568;School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, China^627;School of Geography, Nanjing Normal University, 210023 Nanjing, China^599;School of Geography, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia^326;School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK^327;School of Geology, Environment and Earth Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 6140, New Zealand^391;School of Geomatics and Urban Spatial Informatics, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing, 102616, China^631;School of Geosciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW2006, Australia^407;School of Information Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, China^161;School of Mathematics and Statistics, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland^222;School of Natural Sciences and Centre for Ore Deposit and Earth Sciences (CODES), University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS 7001, Australia^426;School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia^358;School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, UK^330;School of Ophthalmology & Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China^16;School of Ophthalmology and Optometry and Eye Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China^72;School of Optometry & Vision Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand^90;School of Optometry and Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA^3;School of Optometry and Vision Science, and New Zealand National Eye Centre, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand^125;School of Optometry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA^55;School of Optometry, University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA^135;School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China^171;School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales, UK^41;School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia^78;School of Psychology, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, Australia^80;School of Psychology, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK^157;Science Division, New York University - Abu Dhabi, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates^79;Section Computational Sensomotorics, Department of Cognitive Neurology, UKT, Germany^85;Section Computational Sensomotorics, Department of Cognitive Neurology, University Clinic Tübigen, Germany^86;Section Computational Sensomotorics, Department of Cognitive Neurology, University Clinic, Tübigen, Germany^81;Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Center (BiK-F), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany^268;Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt, Germany^262;Service Géologique de Nouvelle-Calédonie, Nouméa, New Caledonia^420;Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Wisdom Mine Information Technology, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China^469;Shen Kan Engineering & Technology Corporation, MCC, Shenyang 110169, China^574;Shenzhen Key Lab of Neuropsychiatric Modulation, Guangdong Key Lab of Brain Connectomics, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, the Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, China^152;Sichuan Provincial Transport Department Highway Planning, Survey, Design And Research Institute, Chengdu, China^643;Sinergiae Ambiente Lda (Environmental Consultancy) Coimbra, Portugal Eiras, Rua da Liberdade, Lote 5, Loja No. 1, 3020-112 Coimbra, Portugal^506;Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA^136;Società Italiana per la Storia della Fauna “Giuseppe Altobello” Viale Liegi, 48A, 00198 Rome, Italy^513;Soil Erosion and Conservation Research Group, CEBAS-CSIC, Spanish National Research Council, Campus Universitario Espinardo, 30100, P.O. Box 164, Murcia, Spain^319;Space Center, Skolkovo Institute of Technology (SKOLTECH), Moscow, Russia^559;Spatial Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth WA 6845, Australia^606;Spatial Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA, 6845, Australia^547;Spindox Labs srl, Trento, Italy^562;State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Science, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China^150;State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China^583;State Key Laboratory of Information Engineering in Surveying, Mapping and Remote Sensing, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China^641;State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Optometry and Vision Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China^73;State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Nanjing 210008, China^387;Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research (WSL), Birmensdorf, Switzerland^213;Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Birmensdorf, 8903, Switzerland^323;Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse 111, 8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland^289;São Paulo State University - UNESP, Dept. of Cartography, Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil^603;São Paulo State University - UNESP, Graduate Program in Cartographic Sciences, Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil^602;TESAF Department, University of Padova, Viale dell’Università 16, Legnaro (PD), Italy^646;TUM, Department of Ecology and Ecosystem Management, Freising, Germany^550;Technische Universität Dresden, Institut für Planetare Geodäsie, 01062 Dresden, Germany^309;Technology Centre for Marine Survey, Agency for Assessment and Application of Technology (BPPT), Jakarta, 10340, Indonesia^548;The Australian Archaeomagnetism Laboratory, Department of Archaeology and History, La Trobe University, Melbourne Campus, Bundoora, 3086, VIC, Australia^325;The Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, London, UK^498;The Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California–Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA^137;Theoretical Neuroscience Group, Dept. of Psychology, UMR Marburg, Germany^84;Tianjin Engineering Center for Geospatial Information Technology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China^573;Tomsk State University, Lenina Prospekt 36, Tomsk 634050, Russia^441;U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California, USA^359;UAS Research Area, Fundación Centro de Innovación Aeroespacial de Galicia, Edificio, Nigrán, Spain^597;UCL Institute of Ophthalmology, University College London, London, UK^127;UEA, School of Environmental Sciences, Norwich, UK^236;URPP Language and Space, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland^207;Univ. Grenoble Alpes, Univ. Savoie Mont Blanc, CNRS, IRD, IFSTTAR, ISTerre, 38000 Grenoble, France^279;University at Albany^195;University of Bradford, School of Engineering, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK^143;University of Bradford, School of Health Studies, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK^145;University of Bradford, School of Optometry and Vision Science, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK^141;University of Hawai`i at Hilo, 200 W. Kāwili St., Hilo, HI 96720-4091, USA^340;University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland^226;University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, USA^352;University of Porto, Science Faculty, Rua Campo Alegre, 416-007 Porto, Portugal^575;University of Reading, Reading, UK^243;University of Southampton, National Oceanography Centre, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK^414;University of St Andrews, School of Psychology and Neuroscience, St. Andrews, Fife, UK^144;University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia^218;University of Texas High Resolution X-ray CT Facility, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA^384;University of York, Department of Psychology, York, North Yorkshire, UK^142;University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China^480;Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France^123;Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France^27;Université de Lorraine, CNRS, CRAN, F-54000, Nancy, France^186;Université de Toulouse, Centre de Recherche Cerveau et Cognition, Toulouse, France^25;Upstate Medical University^201;Utica College^197;VBPR – Volcanic Basin Petroleum Research, Oslo, Norway^337;Verkís Consulting Engineers, Reykjavík, Iceland^360;Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Syracuse, NY, USA^164;Vision Science Graduate Group, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA^56;Walker Institute for Climate System Research, University of Reading, Reading, UK^474;Water Desalination and Reuse Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia^585;Webster Drilling and Exploration Ltd, Porirua, 5240, New Zealand^392;World Energy & Meteorology Council, Norwich, UK^237;Xi'an Research Institute of Hi-Tech, Xi'an, China^501;Yellow River Institute of Hydraulic Research, Zhengzhou, Henan, China^275;Zlotowski Center for Neuroscience Research, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel^155;Zoologisches Institut und Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Str. 26, 17489 Greifswald, Germany^444;formerly at: Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ), Section 1.2: Global Geomonitoring and Gravity Field, c/o DLR Oberpfaffenhofen, Münchener Strasse 20, 82234 Wessling, Germany^308;now at: Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Ave., Windsor, Ontario, N9B 3P4, Canada^295;now at: Institute for Geography and Geology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, 97074 Germany^254;now at: Trimble Terrasat, Haringstr. 19, 85635 Höhenkirchen-Siegertsbrunn, Germany^306;now at: the School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK^312;visiting research fellow at: Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia^336;École et Observatoire des Sciences de la Terre – Institut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR 7516, University of Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg CEDEX, France^258;ÍSOR, Iceland GeoSurvey, Reykjavík, Iceland^344;Übersee-Museum Bremen, Bahnhofsplatz 13, 28195 Bremen, Germany^442;“Torre Flavia” LTER (Long Term Ecological Research) Station, Città Metropolitana di Roma, Servizio Aree protette, parchi regionali, via Tiburtina, 691, 00159 Rome, Italy^507

关键词: Deep Learning;    Classification;    Tensorflow;    Laser Scanning;    Airborne Lidar;    Random Forest;   

DOI  :  10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W13-1105-2019

学科分类：地球科学(综合)

来源: Copernicus Publications

【 摘 要 】

In this investigation a comparison between two machine learning (ML) models for semantic classification of an aerial laser scanner point cloud is presented. One model is Random Forest (RF), the other is a multi-layer neural network, TensorFlow (TF). Accuracy results were compared over a growing set of training data, using a stratified independent sampling over classes from 5% to 50% of the total dataset. Results show RF to have average F1 = 0.823 for the 9 classes considered, whereas TF had average F1 = 0.450. F1 values where higher for RF than TF, due to complexity in the determination of a suitable composition of the hidden layers of the neural network in TF, and this can likely be improved to reach higher accuracy values. Further study in this sense is planned.

【 授权许可】

CC BY