Comparison of the antibacterial activity of essential oils and extracts of medicinal and culinary herbs to investigate potential new treatments for irritable bowel syndrome

BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Paula E Row³  Dan W Forman¹  Tim C Claypole²  Chris O Phillips²  Emma Chileshe³  Rebecca Conniff-Jenkins³  Nadia Ahmed³  Dilruba Meah³  Aiysha Thompson³ 

[1] College of Science, The Wallace Building, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK;Welsh Centre for Printing and Coating, College of Engineering, The Talbot Building, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK;Biochemistry Group, College of Medicine, Care of Grove Reception, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK

关键词: Essential oil;    Antimicrobial;    Antibacterial;    Herbal medicine;    SIBO;    Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth;    IBS;    Irritable bowel syndrome;   

Others  :  1220479
DOI  :  10.1186/1472-6882-13-338

 received in 2012-10-17, accepted in 2013-11-21,  发布年份 2013

【 摘 要 】

Background

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common functional gastrointestinal disorder, which may result from alteration of the gastrointestinal microbiota following gastrointestinal infection, or with intestinal dysbiosis or small intestinal bacterial overgrowth. This may be treated with antibiotics, but there is concern that widespread antibiotic use might lead to antibiotic resistance. Some herbal medicines have been shown to be beneficial, but their mechanism(s) of action remain incompletely understood. To try to understand whether antibacterial properties might be involved in the efficacy of these herbal medicines, and to investigate potential new treatments for IBS, we have conducted a preliminary study in vitro to compare the antibacterial activity of the essential oils of culinary and medicinal herbs against the bacterium, Esherichia coli.

Methods

Essential oils were tested for their ability to inhibit E. coli growth in disc diffusion assays and in liquid culture, and to kill E. coli in a zone of clearance assay. Extracts of coriander, lemon balm and spearmint leaves were tested for their antibacterial activity in the disc diffusion assay. Disc diffusion and zone of clearance assays were analysed by two-tailed t tests whereas ANOVA was performed for the turbidometric assays.

Results

Most of the oils exhibited antibacterial activity in all three assays, however peppermint, lemon balm and coriander seed oils were most potent, with peppermint and coriander seed oils being more potent than the antibiotic rifaximin in the disc diffusion assay. The compounds present in these oils were identified by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Finally, extracts were made of spearmint, lemon balm and coriander leaves with various solvents and these were tested for their antibacterial activity against E. coli in the disc diffusion assay. In each case, extracts made with ethanol and methanol exhibited potent antibacterial activity.

Conclusions

Many of the essential oils had antibacterial activity in the three assays, suggesting that they would be good candidates for testing in clinical trials. The observed antibacterial activity of ethanolic extracts of coriander, lemon balm and spearmint leaves suggests a mechanistic explanation for the efficacy of a mixture of coriander, lemon balm and mint extracts against IBS in a published clinical trial.

【 授权许可】

   
2013 Thompson et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

Figure 7.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]British Society of Gastroenterology, London: Care of patients with Gastrointestinal disorders in the United Kingdom. An Evidence-based strategy for the future. [http://www.bsg.org.uk/clinical/publications/bsg-strategy-document-2006.html webcite] [accessed 05/12/2013]
• [2]Talley NJ, Zinsmeister AR, Melton J III: Irritable bowel syndrome in a community: symptom subgroups, risk factors and health care utilization. Am J Epidemiol 1995, 142:76-83.
• [3]Tillisch K, Labus JS, Naliboff BD, Bolus R, Shetzline M, Mayer EA, Chang L: Characterization of the alternating bowel habit subtype in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2005, 100:896-904.
• [4]Thabane M, Marshall JK: Post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2009, 15:3591-3596.
• [5]Barbara G, De Giorgio R, Stanghellini V, Cremon C, Salvioli B, Corinaldesi R: New pathophysiological mechanisms in irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharm Ther 2004, 20:1-9.
• [6]King TS, Elia M, Hunter JO: Abnormal colonic fermentation in irritable bowel syndrome. Lancet 1998, 352:1187-1189.
• [7]Ghoshal UC, Shukla R, Ghoshal U, Gwee K-A, Ng SC, Quigley EMM: The gut microbiota and irritable bowel syndrome: friend or foe? Int J Inflamm 2012, 151085. doi:10.1.1155/2012/151085
• [8]Simrén M, Barbara G, Flint HJ, Spiegel BMR, Spiller RC, Vanner S, Verdu EF, Whorwell PJ, Zoetendal EG: Rome foundation committee: intestinal microbiota in functional bowel disorders: a Rome foundation report. Gut 2013, 62:159-176.
• [9]Lin HC: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth: a framework for understanding irritable bowel syndrome. JAMA 2004, 292:852-858.
• [10]Ducrotté P: Microbiota and irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroentérol Glinique Biol 2010, 34:S52-S56.
• [11]Drasar BS, Shiner M, McLeod GM: Studies on the intestinal flora 1. The bacterial flora of the gastrointestinal tract in healthy and achlorhydric persons. Gastroenterology 1969, 56:71-79.
• [12]Gorbach SL: Intestinal microflora. Gastroenterology 1971, 60:1110-1129.
• [13]Toskes PP: Bacterial overgrowth of the gastrointestinal tract. Adv Intern Med 1993, 38:387-407.
• [14]Posserud I, Stotzer P-O, Björnsson ES, Abrahamsson H, Simrén M: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gut 2007, 56:802-808.
• [15]Koide A, Yamaguchi T, Odaka T, Koyama H, Tsuyuguchi T, Kitahara H, Ohto M, Saisho H: Quantitative analysis of bowel gas using plain abdominal radiograph in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2000, 95:1735-1741.
• [16]Shah ED, Basseri RJ, Chong K, Pimentel M: Abnormal breath testing in IBS: a meta-analysis. Dig Dis Sci 2010, 55:2441-2449.
• [17]Ghoshal UC: How to interpret hydrogen breath tests. J Neurogastroenterol Motil 2011, 17:312-317.
• [18]Pimentel M, Chow EJ, Lin HC: Normalisation of lactulose breath testing correlates with symptom improvement in irritable bowel syndrome: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol 2003, 98:412-419.
• [19]Pimentel M, Mayer AG, Park S, Chow EJ, Hasan A, Kong Y: Methane production during lactulose breath test is associated with gastrointestinal disease presentation. Dig Dis Sci 2003, 48:86-92.
• [20]Hwang L, Low K, Khoshini R, Melmed G, Sahakian A, Makhani M, Pokkunuri V, Pimentel M: Evaluating breath methane as a diagnostic test for constipation-predominant IBS. Dig Dis Sci 2010, 55:398-403.
• [21]Reddymasu SC, Sostarich S, McCallum RW: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in irritable bowel syndrome: are there any predictors? BMC Gastroenterol 2010, 10:23. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-230X/10/23 webcite [accessed 05/12/2013] BioMed Central Full Text
• [22]Pimentel M, Chow EJ, Lin HC: Eradication of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth reduces symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 2000, 95:3503-3506.
• [23]Yu D, Cheeseman F, Vanner S: Combined oral-caecal scintigraphy and lactulose hydrogen breath testing demonstrate that breath testing detects oro-caecal transit, not small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in patients with IBS. Gut 2011, 60:334-340.
• [24]Rana SV, Sharma S, Kaur J, Sinha SK, Singh K: Comparison of lactulose and glucose breath test for diagnosis of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Digestion 2012, 85:243-247.
• [25]Pyleris E, Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ, Tzaivras D, Koussoulas V, Barbatzas C, Pimentel M: The prevalence of overgrowth by aerobic bacteria in the small intestine by small bowel culture: relationship with irritable bowel syndrome. Dig Dis Sci 2012, 57:1321-1329.
• [26]Wirthlin DJ, Cullen JJ, Spates ST, Conklin JL, Murray J, Caropreso DK, Ephgrave KS: Gastrointestinal transit during endotoxemia: the role of nitric oxide. J Surg Res 1996, 60:307-311.
• [27]Tabaqchali S, Howard A, Teoh-Chan CH, Bettelheim KA, Gorbach SL: Escherichia coli subtypes throughout the gastrointestinal tract of patients with intestinal disorders. Gut 1977, 18:351-355.
• [28]Swidsinski A, Weber J, Loening-Baucke V, Hale LP, Lochs H: Spatial organization and composition of the mucosal flora in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. J Clin Microbiol 2005, 43:3380-3389.
• [29]Sobieszczańska BM, Osek J, Waśko-Czopnik D, Dworniczek E, Jermakow K: Association of enteroaggregative Escherichia coli with irritable bowel syndrome. Clin Microbiol Infect 2007, 13:404-407.
• [30]Suares NC, Ford AC: Diagnosis and treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Discover Med 2011, 11:425-433.
• [31]Ford AC: Breath testing and antibiotics for possible bacterial overgrowth in irritable bowel syndrome. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2010, 8:855-857.
• [32]Basseri RJ, Weitsman S, Barlow GM, Pimentel M: Antibiotics for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011, 7:455-460. 493
• [33]Dear KLE, Elia M, Hunter : Do interventions which reduce colonic bacterial fermentation improve symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome? Dig Dis Sci 2005, 50:758-766.
• [34]Menees SB, Maneerattannaporn M, Hyungjin MK, Chey WD: The efficacy and safety of rifaximin for the irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2012, 107:28-35.
• [35]Esposito I, de Leone A, Di Gregorio G, Giaquinto S, de Magistris L, Ferrieri A, Riegler G: Breath test for differential diagnosis between small intestinal bacterial overgrowth and irritable bowel disease: an observation on non-absorbable antibiotics. World J Gastroenterol 2007, 13:6016-6021.
• [36]Low K, Hwang L, Hua J, Zhu A, Morales W, Pimentel M: A combination of rifaximin and neomycin is most effective in treating irritable bowel syndrome patients with methane on lactulose breath test. J Clin Gastroenterol 2009, 44:547-550.
• [37]National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence: Clinical practice guideline. Irritable bowel syndrome in adults: diagnosis and management of irritable bowel syndrome in primary care. 2008. [http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/11927/39746/39746.pdf webcite] [accessed 05/12/2013]
• [38]Lauritano EC, Gabrielli M, Scarpellini E, Lupascu A, Novi M, Sottili S, Vitale G, Cesario V, Serricchio M, Cammarota G, Gasbarrini G, Gasbarrini A: Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth recurrence after antibiotic therapy. Am J Gastroenterol 2008, 103:2031-2035.
• [39]Livermore DM: Minimising antibiotic resistance. Lancet Infect Dis 2005, 5:450-459.
• [40]Rubin DT, Sohi S, Glathar M, Thomas T, Yadron N, Surma BL: Rifaximin is effective for the treatments of Clostridium difficile – associated diarrhea: results of an open-label pilot study. Gastroenterol Res Prac 2011. 2011: 106978 doi:10.1155/2011/10698. Epub 2011 Nov 9
• [41]O’Connor JR, Galang MA, Sambol SP, Hecht DW, Vedantam G, Gerding DN, Johnson S: Rifampin and rifaximin resistance in clinical isolates of Clostridium difficile. Antimicrob Ag Chemother 2008, 52:2813-2817.
• [42]Clayton EM, Rea MC, Shanahan F, Quigley EM, Kiely B, Ross RP, Hill C: Carriage of Clostridium difficile in out-patients with irritable bowel syndrome. J Med Microbiol 2012, 61:1290-1294.
• [43]Moayyedi P, Ford AC, Talley NJ, Cremonini F, Foxx-Orenstein AE, Brandt LJ, Quigley EMM: The efficacy of probiotics in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review. Gut 2010, 59:325-332.
• [44]Clarke G, Cryan JF, Dinan TG, Quigley EM: Review article: probiotics for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome – focus on lactic acid bacteria. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012, 35:403-413.
• [45]Silk DBA, Davis A, Vulevic J, Tzortzis G, Gibson GR: Clinical trial: the effects of a trans-galactooligosaccharide prebiotic on faecal microbiota and symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009, 29:508-518.
• [46]Landy J, Al-Hassi HO, McLaughlin SD, Walker AW, Ciclitira PJ, Nicholls RJ, Clark SK, Hart AL: Review article: faecal transplantation therapy for gastrointestinal disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2011, 34:409-415.
• [47]Alun Jones V, McLaughlan P, Shorthouse M, Workman E, Hunter JO: Food intolerance: a major factor in the pathogenesis of irritable bowel syndrome. Lancet 1982, 320:1115-1117.
• [48]Workman E, Hunter J, Alun Jones V: The allergy diet. How to overcome your food intolerance. 3rd edition. London: Optima positive health guides: Macdonald and Company, publishers; 1970. ISBN 0-356-14458-5
• [49]Gibson PR, Shepherd SJ: Evidence-based dietary management of functional gastrointestinal symptoms: The FODMAP approach. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010, 25:252-258.
• [50]Shepherd SJ, Gibson PR: Fructose malabsorption and symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome: guidelines for effective dietary management. J Am Diet Assoc 2006, 106:1631-1639.
• [51]Shepherd SJ, Parker FC, Muir JG, Gibson PR: Dietary triggers of abdominal symptoms in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: randomized placebo-controlled evidence. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008, 6:765-771.
• [52]Ong DK, Mitchell SB, Barrett JS, Shepherd SJ, Irving PM, Biesiekierski JR, Smith S, Gibson PR, Muir JG: Manipulation of dietary short chain carbohydrates alters the pattern of gas production and genesis of symptoms in irritable bowel syndrome. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010, 25:1366-1373.
• [53]Staudacher HM, Whelan K, Irving PM, Lomer MCE: Comparison of symptom response following advice for a diet low in fermentable carbohydrates (FODMAPs) versus standard dietary advice in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. J Hum Nutr Diet 2011, 24:487-495.
• [54]Yoon SL, Grundmann O, Koepp L, Farrell L: Management of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) in adults: conventional and complementary / alternative approaches. Altern Med Rev 2011, 16:134-151.
• [55]Brierley SM, Kelber O: Use of natural products in gastrointestinal therapies. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2011, 11:604-611.
• [56]Rahimi R, Abdollahi M: Herbal medicines for the management of irritable bowel syndrome: a comprehensive review. World J Gastroenterol 2012, 18:589-600.
• [57]Forster HB, Niklas H, Lutz S: Antispasmodic effects of some medicinal plants. Planta Med 1980, 40:309-319.
• [58]Leicester RJ, Hunt RH: Peppermint oil to reduce colon spasm during endoscopy. Lancet 1982, 2:989.
• [59]Grigoleit H-G, Grigoleit P: Peppermint oil in irritable bowel syndrome. Phytomed 2005, 12:601-606.
• [60]Ford AC, Talley NJ, Spiegel BMR, Foxx-Orenstein AE, Schiller L, Quigley EMM, Moayyedi P: Effect of fibre, antispasmodics, and peppermint oil in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2008, 337:a2313. doi:10.1136/bmj.a2313
• [61]MHRA: Peppermint water BP 1973 THR 20346/0003UKPAR. 2009. [http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/groups/par/documents/websiteresources/con052093.pdf webcite] [accessed 05/12/2013]
• [62]Wegener T, Wagner H: The active components and the pharmacological multi-target principle of STW 5 (Iberogast®). Phytomed 2006, 13:20-35.
• [63]Madisch A, Holtmann G, Plein K, Hotz J: Treatment of irritable bowel syndrome with herbal preparations: results of a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multi-centre trial. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004, 19:271-279.
• [64]Melzer J, Rösch W, Reichling J, Brignoli R, Saller R: Meta-analysis: phytotherapy of functional dyspepsia with the herbal drug preparation STW 5 (Iberogast). Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2004, 20:1279-1287.
• [65]Schulz V, Hansel R, Blumenthal M, Tyler VE: Rational phytotherapy. A reference guide for physicians and pharmacists, 5th Edition. Berlin Heidelberg, Germany: Springer; 2004.
• [66]Vejdani R, Shalmani HRM, Mir-Fattahi M, Sajed-Nia F, Abdollahi M, Zali MR, Alizadeh AHM, Bahari A, Amin G: The efficacy of an herbal medicine, carmint, on the relief of abdominal pain and bloating in patients with irritable bowel syndrome: a pilot study. Dig Dis Sci 2006, 51:1501-1507.
• [67]Castleman M: The New Healing Herbs. The Ultimate guide to nature’s best medicines featuring the top 100 time-tested herbs. New York, USA: Bantam Books; 2001.
• [68]Grieve M: A modern herbal. The medicinal, culinary, cosmetic and economic properties, cultivation and folklore of herbs, grasses, fungi, shrubs and trees with all their modern scientific uses. 3rd edition. Chatham, Kent, UK: Mackays; 1992.
• [69]Burt S: Essential oils: their antibacterial properties and potential applications in foods – a review. Int J Food Microbiol 2004, 94:223-253.
• [70]Blumenthal M, Busse WR, Goldberg A, Gruenwald J, Hall T, Klein S, Riggins CW, Rister RS: The Complete German Commission E Monographs. Austin Texas: American Botanical Council; 1998. [Therapeutic guide to herbal medicines]
• [71]Cimanga K, Kambu K, Tona L, Apers S, De Bruyne T, Hermans N, Totté J, Pieters L, Vlietinck AJ: Correlation between chemical composition and antibacterial activity of essential oils of some aromatic medicinal plants growing in the Democratic Republic of Congo. J Ethnopharmacol 2002, 79:213-220.
• [72]Ohno T, Kita M, Yamaoka Y, Imamura S, Yamamoto T, Mitsufuji S, Kodama T, Kashima K, Imanishi J: Antimicrobial activity of essential oils against Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 2003, 8:207-215.
• [73]Bauer AW, Perry DM, Kirby WM: Single-disk antibiotic sensitivity testing of staphylococci; an analysis of technique and results. AMA Arch Intern Med 1959, 104:208-216.
• [74]Sambrook J, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T: Molecular Cloning: a laboratory manual. 2nd edition. Plainview, New York, USA: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1989.
• [75]Si W, Gong J, Tsao R, Zhou T, Yu H, Poppe C, Johnson R, Du Z: Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and structurally related synthetic food additives towards selected pathogenic and beneficial gut bacteria. J Appl Microbiol 2006, 100:296-305.
• [76]Bexfield A, Nigam Y, Thomas S, Ratcliffe NA: Detection and partial characterisation of two antibacterial factors from the excretions/secretions of the medicinal maggot Lucilia sericata and their activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Microbes Infect 2004, 6:1297-1304.
• [77]Ericksen B, Wu Z, Lu W, Lehrer RI: Antibacterial activity and specificity of the six human α - defensins. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005, 49:269-275.
• [78]d’Acampora Zellner B, Dugo P, Dugo G, Mondello L: Analysis of Essential oils. In Handbook of Essential oils, Science, technology and applications. Edited by Husnu Can Baser K, Gerhard B. Boca Raton, Florida, USA: CRC Press; 2010:151-183.
• [79]Wong PYY, Kitts DD: Studies on the dual antioxidant and antibacterial properties of parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and cilantro (Coriandrum sativum) extracts. Food Chem 2006, 97:505-515.
• [80]López V, Martín S, Gómez-Serranillos MP, Carretero ME, Jäger AK, Calvo MI: Neuroprotective and neurochemical properties of mint extracts. Phytother Res 2010, 24:869-874.
• [81]Gavin JJ: Analytical microbiology V. Metabolic response methods. Appl Microbiol 1959, 7:180-192.
• [82]FDA: U.S: Food and Drug Administration Listing of Food Additive Status. [http://www.fda.gov/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/ webcite] [accessed 05/12/2013]
• [83]Sari AO, Ceylan A: Yield characteristics and essential oil composition of lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) grown in the Aegean region of Turkey. Turk J Agric For 2002, 26:217-224.
• [84]Patora J, Majda T, Góra J, Klimek B: Variability in the content and composition of essential oil from lemon balm (Melissa officinalis L.) cultivated in Poland. Acta Poloniae Pharmaceut –Drug Res 2003, 60:395-400.
• [85]Cosge B, Ipek A, Gurbuz B: GC/MS Analysis of herbage essential oil from lemon balms (Melissa officinalis L.) grown in Turkey. J Appl Biol Sci 2009, 3:149-152.
• [86]Khalid KA, Cai W: The effects of mannitol and salinity stresses on growth and biochemical accumulations in lemon balm. Acta Ecol Sin 2011, 31:112-120.
• [87]Scavroni J, Boaro CSF, Marques MOM, Ferreira LC: Yield and composition of the essential oil of Mentha piperita L. (Lamiaceae) grown with biosolid. Braz J Plant Physiol 2005, 17:345-352.
• [88]Gochev V, Stoyanova A, Girova T, Atanasova T: Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of Bulgarian peppermint oils. Bulg Scient Pap 2008, 36:83-89.
• [89]Schmidt E, Bail S, Buchbauer G, Stoilova I, Atanasova T, Stoyanova A, Krastanov A, Jirovetz L: Chemical composition, olfactory evaluation and antioxidant effects of essential oil from Mentha x piperita. Nat Prod Commun 2009, 4:1107-1112.
• [90]Won CE-J, M-M LD-S: Analysis of flavor composition of coriander seeds by headspace mulberry paper bag micro-solid phase extraction. Bull Korean Chem Soc 2009, 30:2675-2679.
• [91]Anwar F, Sulman M, Hussain AI, Saari N, Iqbal S, Rashid U: Physicochemical composition of hydro-distilled essential oil from coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) seeds cultivated in Pakistan. J Med Plant Res 2011, 5:3537-3544.
• [92]Zawiślak G: The chemical composition of essential oil from the fruit of coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.). Annal Univers Mariae Curie-Sklodowska Sect DDD: Pharm 2011, 24:169-175.
• [93]Zheljazazkov VD, Pickett KM, Caldwell CD, Pincock JA, Roberts JC, Mapplebeck L: Cultivar and sowing date effects on seed yield and oil composition of coriander in Atlantic Canada. Ind Crops Prod 2008, 28:88-94.
• [94]Hammer KA, Carson CF, Riley TV: Antimicrobial activity of essential oils and other plant extracts. J Appl Microbiol 1999, 86:985-990.
• [95]Singh G, Kapoor IPS, Pandey SK, Singh UK, Singh RK: Studies on essential oils: Part 10: Antibacterial activity of volatile oils of some spices. Phytother Res 2002, 16:680-682.
• [96]Smith-Palmer A, Stewart J, Fyfe L: Antimicrobial properties of plant essential oils and essences against five important food-borne pathogens. Lett Appl Microbiol 1998, 26:118-122.
• [97]Schelz Z, Molnar J, Hohmann J: Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils. Fitoterapia 2006, 77:279-285.
• [98]Friedman M, Henika PR, Levin CE, Mandrell RE: Antibacterial activities of plant essential oils and their components against Escherichia coli 0157:H7 and Salmonella enterica in apple juice. J Agric Food Chem 2004, 52:6042-6048.
• [99]Hawrelak JA, Cattley T, Myers SP: Essential oils in the treatment of intestinal dysbiosis: a preliminary in vitro study. Alt Med Rev 2009, 14:380-384.
• [100]Inouye S, Takizawa T, Yamaguchi H: Antibacterial activity of essential oils and their major constitutents against respiratory tract pathogens by gaseous contact. J Antimicrob Chemother 2001, 47:565-573.
• [101]Wannissorn B, Jarikasem S, Siriwangchai T, Thubthimthed S: Antibacterial properties of essential oils from Thai medicinal plants. Fitoterapia 2005, 76:233-236.
• [102]Dabbah R, Edwards VM, Moats WA: Antimicrobial action of some citrus fruit oils on selected food-borne bacteria. Appl Microbiol 1970, 19:27-31.
• [103]Işcan G, Kirimer N, Kürkcüoğlu M, Başer KH, Demirci F: Antimicrobial screening of Mentha piperita essential oils. J Agric Food Chem 2002, 50:3943-3946.
• [104]Moken MC, McMurry LM, Levy SB: Selection of multiple-antibiotic resistant (Mar) Mutants of Escherichia coli by using the disinfectant pine oil: roles of the mar and acrAB loci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1997, 41:2770-2772.
• [105]Prabuseenivasan S, Jayakumar M, Ignacimuthu S: In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils. BMC Complement Altern Med 2006, 6:39. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-6-39 BioMed Central Full Text
• [106]Bozin B, Mimica-Dukic N, Samojlik I, Jovin E: Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of rosemary and sage (Rosmarinus officinalis L. and Salvia officinalis L. Lamiaceae) essential oils. J Agric Food Chem 2007, 55:7879-7885.
• [107]Nascimento GGF, Locatelli J, Freitas PC, Silva G: Antibacterial activity of plant extracts and phytochemicals on antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Br J Microbiol 2000, 31:247-256.
• [108]Dorman HJD, Deans SG: Antimicrobial agents from plants: antibacterial activity of plant volatile oils. J Appl Microbiol 2000, 88:308-316.
• [109]Al-Bayati FA: Synergistic antibacterial activity between Thymus vulgaris and Pimpinella anisum essential oils and methanol extracts. J Ethnopharmacol 2008, 116:403-406.
• [110]Soković M, Glamočlija J, Marin PD, Brkić D, van Griensven LJLD: Antibacterial effects of the essential oils of commonly consumed medicinal herbs using an in vitro model. Molecules 2010, 15:7532-7546.
• [111]Ngan LTM, Moon J-K, Kim J-H, Shibamoto T, Ahn Y-J: Growth-inhibiting effects of Paeonia lactiflora root steam distillate constituents and structurally related compounds on human intestinal bacteria. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2012, 28:1575-1583.
• [112]Kim J, Marshall MR, Wei C-I: Antibacterial activity of some essential oil components against five foodborne pathogens. J Agric Food Chem 1995, 43:2839-2845.
• [113]Koutsoudaki C, Krsek M, Rodger A: Chemical composition and antibacterial activity of the essential oil and gum of Pistacia lentiscus Var. chia. J Agric Food Chem 2005, 53:7681-7685.
• [114]Kiskó G, Roller S: Carvacrol and p-cymene inactivate Escherichia coli 0157:H7 in apple juice. BMC Microbiol 2005, 5:36. doi:10.1186/1471-2180/5/36 BioMed Central Full Text
• [115]de Lima Mendonça A, da Silva CE, de Mesquita FLT, da Silva Campos R, do Nascimento RR, de Azevedo Ximenes ECP, Sant’Ana AEG: Antimicrobial activities of components of the glandular secretions of leaf cutting ants of the genus Atta. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 2009, 95:295-303.
• [116]Duarte MCT, Leme EE, Delarmelina C, Soares AA, Figueira GM, Sartoratto A: Activity of essential oils from Brazilian medicinal plants on Escherichia coli. J Ethnopharmacol 2007, 111:197-201.
• [117]Naigre R, Kalck P, Roques C, Roux I, Michel G: Comparison of antimicrobial properties of monoterpenes and their carbonylated products. Planta Med 1996, 62:275-277.
• [118]Oumzil H, Ghoulami S, Rhajaoui M, Ilidrissi A, Fkih-Tetouani S, Faid M, Benjouad A: Antibacterial and antifungal activity of essential oils of Mentha suaveolens. Phytother Res 2002, 16:727-731.
• [119]Hendry ER, Worthington T, Conway BR, Lambert PA: Antimicrobial efficacy of eucalyptus oil and 1,8-cineole alone and in combination with chlorhexidine digluconate against microorganisms grown in planktonic and biofilm cultures. J Antimicob Chemother 2009, 64:1219-1225.
• [120]Mrlianová M, Tekel'ová D, Felklová M, Reinöhl V, Tóth : The influence of the harvest cut height on the quality of the herbal drugs Melissae folium and Melissae herba. Planta Med 2002, 68:178-180.
• [121]Heimes K, Hauk F, Verspohl EJ: Mode of action of peppermint oil and (-)-menthol with respect to 5-HT3 receptor subtypes: binding studies, cation uptake by receptor channels and contraction of isolated rat ileum. Phytother Res 2011, 25:702-708.
• [122]Kennedy DO, Little W, Scholey AB: Attenuation of laboratory-induced stress in humans after acute administration of Melissa officinalis (Lemon Balm). Psychosom Med 2004, 66:607-613.
• [123]Ford AC: Eradicating Helicobacter pylori in functional dyspepsia. Gastroenterology 2012, 142:1613-1614.
• [124]Logan AC, Beaulne TM: The treatment of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth with enteric-coated peppermint oil: a case report. Altern Med Rev 2002, 7:410-417.
• [125]Gaby AR: Treatment with enteric-coated peppermint oil reduced small-intestinal bacterial overgrowth in a patient with irritable bowel syndrome. Altern Med Rev 2003, 8:3. author reply 4-5
• [126]White DA, Thompson SP, Wilson CG, Bell GD: A pharmacokinetic comparison of two delayed-release peppermint oil preparations, Colpermin and Mintec, for treatment of the irritable bowel syndrome. Int J Pharmaceut 1987, 40:151-155.
• [127]Grigoleit H-G, Grigoleit P: Gastrointestinal clinical pharmacology of peppermint oil. Phytomed 2005, 12:607-611.
• [128]Sigmund CJ, McNally EF: The action of a carminative on the lower esophageal sphincter. Gastroenterology 1969, 56:13-18.
• [129]Tamir S, Davidovich Z, Attal P, Eliashar R: Peppermint oil chemical burn. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2005, 133:801-802.
• [130]Rees WD, Evans BK, Rhodes J: Treating irritable bowel syndrome with peppermint oil. Br Med J 1979, 2:835-836.
• [131]Bian Z, Wu T, Liu L, Miao J, Wong H, Song L, Sung JJ: Effectiveness of the Chinese herbal formula TongXieYaoFang for irritable bowel syndrome: a systematic review. J Altern Complement Med 2006, 12:401-407.
• [132]Lachenmeier DW, Nathan-Maister D, Breaux TA, Luauté J-P, Emmert J: Absinthe, absinthism and thujone – new insight into the spirit’s impact on public health. Open Addict J 2010, 3:32-38.