Impact of caloric and dietary restriction regimens on markers of health and longevity in humans and animals: a summary of available findings

Nutrition Journal

Richard J Bloomer¹  Mohammad M Kabir¹  Kate E Marshall¹  Robert E Canale¹  John F Trepanowski¹ 

[1] Cardiorespiratory/Metabolic Laboratory, The University of Memphis, Memphis, TN 38152, USA

关键词: exercise;    oxidative stress;    dietary modification;    caloric restriction;   

Others  :  840053
DOI  :  10.1186/1475-2891-10-107

 received in 2011-06-23, accepted in 2011-10-07,  发布年份 2011

【 摘 要 】

Considerable interest has been shown in the ability of caloric restriction (CR) to improve multiple parameters of health and to extend lifespan. CR is the reduction of caloric intake - typically by 20 - 40% of ad libitum consumption - while maintaining adequate nutrient intake. Several alternatives to CR exist. CR combined with exercise (CE) consists of both decreased caloric intake and increased caloric expenditure. Alternate-day fasting (ADF) consists of two interchanging days; one day, subjects may consume food ad libitum (sometimes equaling twice the normal intake); on the other day, food is reduced or withheld altogether. Dietary restriction (DR) - restriction of one or more components of intake (typically macronutrients) with minimal to no reduction in total caloric intake - is another alternative to CR. Many religions incorporate one or more forms of food restriction. The following religious fasting periods are featured in this review: 1) Islamic Ramadan; 2) the three principal fasting periods of Greek Orthodox Christianity (Nativity, Lent, and the Assumption); and 3) the Biblical-based Daniel Fast. This review provides a summary of the current state of knowledge related to CR and DR. A specific section is provided that illustrates related work pertaining to religious forms of food restriction. Where available, studies involving both humans and animals are presented. The review includes suggestions for future research pertaining to the topics of discussion.

【 授权许可】

   
2011 Trepanowski et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]McCay CM, Crowell MF, Maynard LA: The effect of retarded growth upon the length of life span and upon the ultimate body size. 1935. Nutrition 1989, 5:155-71. discussion 172
• [2]Canto C, Auwerx J: Caloric restriction, SIRT1 and longevity. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2009, 20:325-331.
• [3]Min KJ, Flatt T, Kulaots I, Tatar M: Counting calories in Drosophila diet restriction. Exp Gerontol 2007, 42:247-251.
• [4]Comfort A: Effect of delayed and resumed growth on the longevity of a fish (Lebistes reticulates, Peters) in captivity. Gerontologia 1963, 150-5.
• [5]Lawler DF, Larson BT, Ballam JM, Smith GK, Biery DN, Evans RH, Greeley EH, Segre M, Stowe HD, Kealy RD: Diet restriction and ageing in the dog: major observations over two decades. Br J Nutr 2008, 99:793-805.
• [6]Imai S: SIRT1 and caloric restriction: an insight into possible trade-offs between robustness and frailty. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2009, 12:350-356.
• [7]Vaquero A, Reinberg D: Calorie restriction and the exercise of chromatin. Genes Dev 2009, 23:1849-1869.
• [8]Vendelbo MH, Nair KS: Mitochondrial longevity pathways. Biochim Biophys Acta 2011, 1813:634-644.
• [9]Fadini GP, Ceolotto G, Pagnin E, de Kreutzenberg S, Avogaro A: At the crossroads of longevity and metabolism: the metabolic syndrome and lifespan determinant pathways. Aging Cell 2011, 10:10-17.
• [10]Carrillo AE, Flouris AD: Caloric restriction and longevity: effects of reduced body temperature. Ageing Res Rev 2011, 10:153-162.
• [11]Kyrylenko S, Baniahmad A: Sirtuin family: a link to metabolic signaling and senescence. Curr Med Chem 2010, 17:2921-2932.
• [12]Smoliga JM, Baur JA, Hausenblas HA: Resveratrol and health - A comprehensive review of human clinical trials. Mol Nutr Food Res 2011, 55:1129-1141.
• [13]Agarwal B, Baur JA: Resveratrol and life extension. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2011, 1215:138-143.
• [14]Chen T, Shen L, Yu J, Wan H, Guo A, Chen J, Long Y, Zhao J, Pei G: Rapamycin and other longevity-promoting compounds enhance the generation of mouse induced pluripotent stem cells. Aging Cell 2011, 10:908-911.
• [15]Varady KA, Hellerstein MK: Alternate-day fasting and chronic disease prevention: a review of human and animal trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 86:7-13.
• [16]Anson RM, Guo Z, de Cabo R, Iyun T, Rios M, Hagepanos A, Ingram DK, Lane MA, Mattson MP: Intermittent fasting dissociates beneficial effects of dietary restriction on glucose metabolism and neuronal resistance to injury from calorie intake. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003, 100:6216-6220.
• [17]Abete P, Testa G, Galizia G, Mazzella F, Della Morte D, de Santis D, Calabrese C, Cacciatore F, Gargiulo G, Ferrara N, Rengo G, Sica V, Napoli C, Rengo F: Tandem action of exercise training and food restriction completely preserves ischemic preconditioning in the aging heart. Exp Gerontol 2005, 40:43-50.
• [18]Crandall DL, Feirer RP, Griffith DR, Beitz DC: Relative role of caloric restriction and exercise training upon susceptibility to isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in male rats. Am J Clin Nutr 1981, 34:841-847.
• [19]Kalani R, Judge S, Carter C, Pahor M, Leeuwenburgh C: Effects of caloric restriction and exercise on age-related, chronic inflammation assessed by C-reactive protein and interleukin-6. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006, 61:211-217.
• [20]Kim JH, Kwak HB, Leeuwenburgh C, Lawler JM: Lifelong exercise and mild (8%) caloric restriction attenuate age-induced alterations in plantaris muscle morphology, oxidative stress and IGF-1 in the Fischer-344 rat. Exp Gerontol 2008, 43:317-329.
• [21]Deruisseau KC, Kavazis AN, Judge S, Murlasits Z, Deering MA, Quindry JC, Lee Y, Falk DJ, Leeuwenburgh C, Powers SK: Moderate caloric restriction increases diaphragmatic antioxidant enzyme mRNA, but not when combined with lifelong exercise. Antioxid Redox Signal 2006, 8:539-547.
• [22]Holloszy JO: Mortality rate and longevity of food-restricted exercising male rats: a reevaluation. J Appl Physiol 1997, 82:399-403.
• [23]Huffman DM, Moellering DR, Grizzle WE, Stockard CR, Johnson MS, Nagy TR: Effect of exercise and calorie restriction on biomarkers of aging in mice. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2008, 294:R1618-27.
• [24]Seo AY, Hofer T, Sung B, Judge S, Chung HY, Leeuwenburgh C: Hepatic oxidative stress during aging: effects of 8% long-term calorie restriction and lifelong exercise. Antioxid Redox Signal 2006, 8:529-538.
• [25]Horska A, Brant LJ, Ingram DK, Hansford RG, Roth GS, Spencer RG: Effect of long-term caloric restriction and exercise on muscle bioenergetics and force development in rats. Am J Physiol 1999, 276:E766-73.
• [26]Iwasaki K, Gleiser CA, Masoro EJ, McMahan CA, Seo EJ, Yu BP: The influence of dietary protein source on longevity and age-related disease processes of Fischer rats. J Gerontol 1988, 43:B5-12.
• [27]Shimokawa I, Higami Y, Yu BP, Masoro EJ, Ikeda T: Influence of dietary components on occurrence of and mortality due to neoplasms in male F344 rats. Aging (Milano) 1996, 8:254-262.
• [28]Khorakova M, Deil Z, Khausman D, Matsek K: Effect of carbohydrate-enriched diet and subsequent food restriction on life prolongation in Fischer 344 male rats. Fiziol Zh 1990, 36:16-21.
• [29]Kubo C, Johnson BC, Gajjar A, Good RA: Crucial dietary factors in maximizing life span and longevity in autoimmune-prone mice. J Nutr 1987, 117:1129-1135.
• [30]Pamplona R, Barja G: Mitochondrial oxidative stress, aging and caloric restriction: the protein and methionine connection. Biochim Biophys Acta 2006, 1757:496-508.
• [31]Sanz A, Caro P, Sanchez JG, Barja G: Effect of lipid restriction on mitochondrial free radical production and oxidative DNA damage. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006, 1067:200-209.
• [32]Sanz A, Gomez J, Caro P, Barja G: Carbohydrate restriction does not change mitochondrial free radical generation and oxidative DNA damage. J Bioenerg Biomembr 2006, 38:327-333.
• [33]Caro P, Gomez J, Sanchez I, Garcia R, Lopez-Torres M, Naudi A, Portero-Otin M, Pamplona R, Barja G: Effect of 40% restriction of dietary amino acids (except methionine) on mitochondrial oxidative stress and biogenesis, AIF and SIRT1 in rat liver. Biogerontology 2009, 10:579-592.
• [34]Sarri KO, Higgins S, Kafatos AG: Are religions "healthy"? A review of religious recommendations on diet and lifestyle. Ecology, Culture, Nutrition, Health and Disease 2006, 7-20.
• [35]Trepanowski JF, Bloomer RJ: The impact of religious fasting on human health. Nutr J 2010, 9:57. BioMed Central Full Text
• [36]Edwards IJ, Rudel LL, Terry JG, Kemnitz JW, Weindruch R, Cefalu WT: Caloric restriction in rhesus monkeys reduces low density lipoprotein interaction with arterial proteoglycans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1998, 53:B443-8.
• [37]Kayo T, Allison DB, Weindruch R, Prolla TA: Influences of aging and caloric restriction on the transcriptional profile of skeletal muscle from rhesus monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001, 98:5093-5098.
• [38]Lane MA, Ball SS, Ingram DK, Cutler RG, Engel J, Read V, Roth GS: Diet restriction in rhesus monkeys lowers fasting and glucose-stimulated glucoregulatory end points. Am J Physiol 1995, 268:E941-8.
• [39]Lane MA, Ingram DK, Roth GS: Calorie restriction in nonhuman primates: effects on diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk. Toxicol Sci 1999, 52:41-48.
• [40]Messaoudi I, Warner J, Fischer M, Park B, Hill B, Mattison J, Lane MA, Roth GS, Ingram DK, Picker LJ, Douek DC, Mori M, Nikolich-Zugich J: Delay of T cell senescence by caloric restriction in aged long-lived nonhuman primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006, 103:19448-19453.
• [41]Zainal TA, Oberley TD, Allison DB, Szweda LI, Weindruch R: Caloric restriction of rhesus monkeys lowers oxidative damage in skeletal muscle. FASEB J 2000, 14:1825-1836.
• [42]Hursting SD, Lavigne JA, Berrigan D, Perkins SN, Barrett JC: Calorie restriction, aging, and cancer prevention: mechanisms of action and applicability to humans. Annu Rev Med 2003, 54:131-152.
• [43]Merry BJ: Molecular mechanisms linking calorie restriction and longevity. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2002, 34:1340-1354.
• [44]Jung KJ, Lee EK, Kim JY, Zou Y, Sung B, Heo HS, Kim MK, Lee J, Kim ND, Yu BP, Chung HY: Effect of short term calorie restriction on pro-inflammatory NF-kB and AP-1 in aged rat kidney. Inflamm Res 2009, 58:143-150.
• [45]Dhahbi JM, Tsuchiya T, Kim HJ, Mote PL, Spindler SR: Gene expression and physiologic responses of the heart to the initiation and withdrawal of caloric restriction. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2006, 61:218-231.
• [46]Swoap SJ: Altered leptin signaling is sufficient, but not required, for hypotension associated with caloric restriction. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2001, 281:H2473-9.
• [47]Lee CK, Allison DB, Brand J, Weindruch R, Prolla TA: Transcriptional profiles associated with aging and middle age-onset caloric restriction in mouse hearts. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002, 99:14988-14993.
• [48]Wang Z, Masternak MM, Al-Regaiey KA, Bartke A: Adipocytokines and the regulation of lipid metabolism in growth hormone transgenic and calorie-restricted mice. Endocrinology 2007, 148:2845-2853.
• [49]Bonkowski MS, Rocha JS, Masternak MM, Al Regaiey KA, Bartke A: Targeted disruption of growth hormone receptor interferes with the beneficial actions of calorie restriction. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006, 103:7901-7905.
• [50]Okauchi N, Mizuno A, Yoshimoto S, Zhu M, Sano T, Shima K: Is caloric restriction effective in preventing diabetes mellitus in the Otsuka Long Evans Tokushima fatty rat, a model of spontaneous non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus? Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1995, 27:97-106.
• [51]Bevilacqua L, Ramsey JJ, Hagopian K, Weindruch R, Harper ME: Effects of short- and medium-term calorie restriction on muscle mitochondrial proton leak and reactive oxygen species production. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004, 286:E852-61.
• [52]Hagopian K, Harper ME, Ram JJ, Humble SJ, Weindruch R, Ramsey JJ: Long-term calorie restriction reduces proton leak and hydrogen peroxide production in liver mitochondria. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005, 288:E674-84.
• [53]Hyun DH, Emerson SS, Jo DG, Mattson MP, de Cabo R: Calorie restriction up-regulates the plasma membrane redox system in brain cells and suppresses oxidative stress during aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006, 103:19908-19912.
• [54]Nandy K: Effects of controlled dietary restriction on brain-reactive antibodies in sera of aging mice. Mech Ageing Dev 1982, 18:97-102.
• [55]Weindruch R, Walford RL, Fligiel S, Guthrie D: The retardation of aging in mice by dietary restriction: longevity, cancer, immunity and lifetime energy intake. J Nutr 1986, 116:641-654.
• [56]Pashko LL, Schwartz AG: Inhibition of 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene-induced lung tumorigenesis in A/J mice by food restriction is reversed by adrenalectomy. Carcinogenesis 1996, 17:209-212.
• [57]Pitsikas N, Carli M, Fidecka S, Algeri S: Effect of life-long hypocaloric diet on age-related changes in motor and cognitive behavior in a rat population. Neurobiol Aging 1990, 11:417-423.
• [58]Colman RJ, Beasley TM, Allison DB, Weindruch R: Attenuation of sarcopenia by dietary restriction in rhesus monkeys. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008, 63:556-559.
• [59]Keenan KP, Ballam GC, Dixit R, Soper KA, Laroque P, Mattson BA, Adams SP, Coleman JB: The effects of diet, overfeeding and moderate dietary restriction on Sprague-Dawley rat survival, disease and toxicology. J Nutr 1997, 127:851S-856S.
• [60]Pugh TD, Oberley TD, Weindruch R: Dietary intervention at middle age: caloric restriction but not dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate increases lifespan and lifetime cancer incidence in mice. Cancer Res 1999, 59:1642-1648.
• [61]Civitarese AE, Carling S, Heilbronn LK, Hulver MH, Ukropcova B, Deutsch WA, Smith SR, Ravussin E, CALERIE Pennington Team: Calorie restriction increases muscle mitochondrial biogenesis in healthy humans. PLoS Med 2007, 4:e76.
• [62]Fontana L, Villareal DT, Weiss EP, Racette SB, Steger-May K, Klein S, Holloszy JO, the Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Calorie restriction or exercise: effects on coronary heart disease risk factors. A randomized, controlled trial. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2007, 293:E197-202.
• [63]Fontana L, Weiss EP, Villareal DT, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Long-term effects of calorie or protein restriction on serum IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 concentration in humans. Aging Cell 2008, 7:681-687.
• [64]Heilbronn LK, de Jonge L, Frisard MI, DeLany JP, Larson-Meyer DE, Rood J, Nguyen T, Martin CK, Volaufova J, Most MM, Greenway FL, Smith SR, Deutsch WA, Williamson DA, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE Team: Effect of 6-month calorie restriction on biomarkers of longevity, metabolic adaptation, and oxidative stress in overweight individuals: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006, 295:1539-1548.
• [65]Hofer T, Fontana L, Anton SD, Weiss EP, Villareal D, Malayappan B, Leeuwenburgh C: Long-term effects of caloric restriction or exercise on DNA and RNA oxidation levels in white blood cells and urine in humans. Rejuvenation Res 2008, 11:793-799.
• [66]Larson-Meyer DE, Newcomer BR, Heilbronn LK, Volaufova J, Smith SR, Alfonso AJ, Lefevre M, Rood JC, Williamson DA, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE Team: Effect of 6-month calorie restriction and exercise on serum and liver lipids and markers of liver function. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008, 16:1355-1362.
• [67]Lefevre M, Redman LM, Heilbronn LK, Smith JV, Martin CK, Rood JC, Greenway FL, Williamson DA, Smith SR, Ravussin E, Pennington CALERIE team: Caloric restriction alone and with exercise improves CVD risk in healthy non-obese individuals. Atherosclerosis 2009, 203:206-213.
• [68]Redman LM, Veldhuis JD, Rood J, Smith SR, Williamson D, Ravussin E, for the Pennington CALERIE Team: The effect of caloric restriction interventions on growth hormone secretion in non-obese men and women. Aging Cell 2009.
• [69]Villareal DT, Fontana L, Weiss EP, Racette SB, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Bone mineral density response to caloric restriction-induced weight loss or exercise-induced weight loss: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Intern Med 2006, 166:2502-2510.
• [70]Weiss EP, Racette SB, Villareal DT, Fontana L, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Improvements in glucose tolerance and insulin action induced by increasing energy expenditure or decreasing energy intake: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr 2006, 84:1033-1042.
• [71]Weiss EP, Racette SB, Villareal DT, Fontana L, Steger-May K, Schechtman KB, Klein S, Ehsani AA, Holloszy JO, Washington University School of Medicine CALERIE Group: Lower extremity muscle size and strength and aerobic capacity decrease with caloric restriction but not with exercise-induced weight loss. J Appl Physiol 2007, 102:634-640.
• [72]Verdery RB, Walford RL: Changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins in humans during a 2-year period of dietary restriction in Biosphere 2. Arch Intern Med 1998, 158:900-906.
• [73]Walford RL, Mock D, MacCallum T, Laseter JL: Physiologic changes in humans subjected to severe, selective calorie restriction for two years in biosphere 2: health, aging, and toxicological perspectives. Toxicol Sci 1999, 52:61-65.
• [74]Walford RL, Mock D, Verdery R, MacCallum T: Calorie restriction in biosphere 2: alterations in physiologic, hematologic, hormonal, and biochemical parameters in humans restricted for a 2-year period. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2002, 57:B211-24.
• [75]Fontana L, Meyer TE, Klein S, Holloszy JO: Long-term calorie restriction is highly effective in reducing the risk for atherosclerosis in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004, 101:6659-6663.
• [76]Fontana L, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Premachandra BN: Effect of long-term calorie restriction with adequate protein and micronutrients on thyroid hormones. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006, 91:3232-3235.
• [77]Meyer TE, Kovacs SJ, Ehsani AA, Klein S, Holloszy JO, Fontana L: Long-term caloric restriction ameliorates the decline in diastolic function in humans. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006, 47:398-402.
• [78]Willcox BJ, Willcox DC, Todoriki H, Fujiyoshi A, Yano K, He Q, Curb JD, Suzuki M: Caloric restriction, the traditional Okinawan diet, and healthy aging: the diet of the world's longest-lived people and its potential impact on morbidity and life span. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1114:434-455.
• [79]Holloszy JO, Fontana L: Caloric restriction in humans. Exp Gerontol 2007, 42:709-712.
• [80]Crujeiras AB, Parra D, Abete I, Martinez JA: A hypocaloric diet enriched in legumes specifically mitigates lipid peroxidation in obese subjects. Free Radic Res 2007, 41:498-506.
• [81]Crujeiras AB, Parra D, Goyenechea E, Abete I, Martinez JA: Tachyphylaxis effects on postprandial oxidative stress and mitochondrial-related gene expression in overweight subjects after a period of energy restriction. Eur J Nutr 2009, 48:341-347.
• [82]Dandona P, Mohanty P, Ghanim H, Aljada A, Browne R, Hamouda W, Prabhala A, Afzal A, Garg R: The suppressive effect of dietary restriction and weight loss in the obese on the generation of reactive oxygen species by leukocytes, lipid peroxidation, and protein carbonylation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001, 86:355-362.
• [83]Skrha J, Kunesova M, Hilgertova J, Weiserova H, Krizova J, Kotrlikova E: Short-term very low calorie diet reduces oxidative stress in obese type 2 diabetic patients. Physiol Res 2005, 54:33-39.
• [84]Galassetti PR, Nemet D, Pescatello A, Rose-Gottron C, Larson J, Cooper DM: Exercise, caloric restriction, and systemic oxidative stress. J Investig Med 2006, 54:67-75.
• [85]Veldhuis JD, Iranmanesh A, Evans WS, Lizarralde G, Thorner MO, Vance ML: Amplitude suppression of the pulsatile mode of immunoradiometric luteinizing hormone release in fasting-induced hypoandrogenemia in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1993, 76:587-593.
• [86]Witte AV, Fobker M, Gellner R, Knecht S, Floel A: Caloric restriction improves memory in elderly humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009, 106:1255-1260.
• [87]Dandona P, Mohanty P, Hamouda W, Ghanim H, Aljada A, Garg R, Kumar V: Inhibitory effect of a two day fast on reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by leucocytes and plasma ortho-tyrosine and meta-tyrosine concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001, 86:2899-2902.
• [88]Dalle-Donne I, Rossi R, Colombo R, Giustarini D, Milzani A: Biomarkers of oxidative damage in human disease. Clin Chem 2006, 52:601-623.
• [89]Larson-Meyer DE, Redman L, Heilbronn LK, Martin CK, Ravussin E: Caloric restriction with or without exercise: the fitness versus fatness debate. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010, 42:152-159.
• [90]Silverman NE, Nicklas BJ, Ryan AS: Addition of aerobic exercise to a weight loss program increases BMD, with an associated reduction in inflammation in overweight postmenopausal women. Calcif Tissue Int 2009, 84:257-265.
• [91]Yassine HN, Marchetti CM, Krishnan RK, Vrobel TR, Gonzalez F, Kirwan JP: Effects of exercise and caloric restriction on insulin resistance and cardiometabolic risk factors in older obese adults--a randomized clinical trial. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2009, 64:90-95.
• [92]Varady KA, Roohk DJ, Loe YC, McEvoy-Hein BK, Hellerstein MK: Effects of modified alternate-day fasting regimens on adipocyte size, triglyceride metabolism, and plasma adiponectin levels in mice. J Lipid Res 2007, 48:2212-2219.
• [93]Descamps O, Riondel J, Ducros V, Roussel AM: Mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species and incidence of age-associated lymphoma in OF1 mice: effect of alternate-day fasting. Mech Ageing Dev 2005, 126:1185-1191.
• [94]Duan W, Guo Z, Jiang H, Ware M, Mattson MP: Reversal of behavioral and metabolic abnormalities, and insulin resistance syndrome, by dietary restriction in mice deficient in brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Endocrinology 2003, 144:2446-2453.
• [95]Ahmet I, Wan R, Mattson MP, Lakatta EG, Talan M: Cardioprotection by intermittent fasting in rats. Circulation 2005, 112:3115-3121.
• [96]Mager DE, Wan R, Brown M, Cheng A, Wareski P, Abernethy DR, Mattson MP: Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting alter spectral measures of heart rate and blood pressure variability in rats. FASEB J 2006, 20:631-637.
• [97]Pedersen CR, Hagemann I, Bock T, Buschard K: Intermittent feeding and fasting reduces diabetes incidence in BB rats. Autoimmunity 1999, 30:243-250.
• [98]Tikoo K, Tripathi DN, Kabra DG, Sharma V, Gaikwad AB: Intermittent fasting prevents the progression of type I diabetic nephropathy in rats and changes the expression of Sir2 and p53. FEBS Lett 2007, 581:1071-1078.
• [99]Wan R, Camandola S, Mattson MP: Intermittent fasting and dietary supplementation with 2-deoxy-D-glucose improve functional and metabolic cardiovascular risk factors in rats. FASEB J 2003, 17:1133-1134.
• [100]Mattson MP, Wan R: Beneficial effects of intermittent fasting and caloric restriction on the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems. J Nutr Biochem 2005, 16:129-137.
• [101]Heilbronn LK, Smith SR, Martin CK, Anton SD, Ravussin E: Alternate-day fasting in nonobese subjects: effects on body weight, body composition, and energy metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 81:69-73.
• [102]Johnson JB, Laub DR, John S: The effect on health of alternate day calorie restriction: eating less and more than needed on alternate days prolongs life. Med Hypotheses 2006, 67:209-211.
• [103]Heilbronn LK, Civitarese AE, Bogacka I, Smith SR, Hulver M, Ravussin E: Glucose tolerance and skeletal muscle gene expression in response to alternate day fasting. Obes Res 2005, 13:574-581.
• [104]Halberg N, Henriksen M, Soderhamn N, Stallknecht B, Ploug T, Schjerling P, Dela F: Effect of intermittent fasting and refeeding on insulin action in healthy men. J Appl Physiol 2005, 99:2128-2136.
• [105]Johnson JB, Summer W, Cutler RG, Martin B, Hyun DH, Dixit VD, Pearson M, Nassar M, Telljohann R, Maudsley S, Carlson O, John S, Laub DR, Mattson MP: Alternate day calorie restriction improves clinical findings and reduces markers of oxidative stress and inflammation in overweight adults with moderate asthma. Free Radic Biol Med 2007, 42:665-674.
• [106]Hubert MF, Laroque P, Gillet JP, Keenan KP: The effects of diet, ad Libitum feeding, and moderate and severe dietary restriction on body weight, survival, clinical pathology parameters, and cause of death in control Sprague-Dawley rats. Toxicol Sci 2000, 58:195-207.
• [107]Djuric Z, Lewis SM, Lu MH, Mayhugh M, Naegeli L, Tang N, Hart RW: Effect of varying caloric restriction levels on female rat growth and 5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxyuridine in DNA. Toxicol Sci 2002, 66:125-130.
• [108]Simpson SJ, Raubenheimer D: Caloric restriction and aging revisited: the need for a geometric analysis of the nutritional bases of aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2007, 62:707-713.
• [109]Segall PE, Timiras PS: Patho-physiologic findings after chronic tryptophan deficiency in rats: a model for delayed growth and aging. Mech Ageing Dev 1976, 5:109-124.
• [110]Ooka H, Segall PE, Timiras PS: Histology and survival in age-delayed low-tryptophan-fed rats. Mech Ageing Dev 1988, 43:79-98.
• [111]Miller RA, Buehner G, Chang Y, Harper JM, Sigler R, Smith-Wheelock M: Methionine-deficient diet extends mouse lifespan, slows immune and lens aging, alters glucose, T4, IGF-I and insulin levels, and increases hepatocyte MIF levels and stress resistance. Aging Cell 2005, 4:119-125.
• [112]Orentreich N, Matias JR, DeFelice A, Zimmerman JA: Low methionine ingestion by rats extends life span. J Nutr 1993, 123:269-274.
• [113]Richie JP Jr, Leutzinger Y, Parthasarathy S, Malloy V, Orentreich N, Zimmerman JA: Methionine restriction increases blood glutathione and longevity in F344 rats. FASEB J 1994, 8:1302-1307.
• [114]Richie JP Jr, Komninou D, Leutzinger Y, Kleinman W, Orentreich N, Malloy V, Zimmerman JA: Tissue glutathione and cysteine levels in methionine-restricted rats. Nutrition 2004, 20:800-805.
• [115]Zimmerman JA, Malloy V, Krajcik R, Orentreich N: Nutritional control of aging. Exp Gerontol 2003, 38:47-52.
• [116]Sanz A, Caro P, Ayala V, Portero-Otin M, Pamplona R, Barja G: Methionine restriction decreases mitochondrial oxygen radical generation and leak as well as oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA and proteins. FASEB J 2006, 20:1064-1073.
• [117]Caro P, Gomez J, Lopez-Torres M, Sanchez I, Naudi A, Jove M, Pamplona R, Barja G: Forty percent and eighty percent methionine restriction decrease mitochondrial ROS generation and oxidative stress in rat liver. Biogerontology 2008, 9:183-196.
• [118]Naudi A, Caro P, Jove M, Gomez J, Boada J, Ayala V, Portero-Otin M, Barja G, Pamplona R: Methionine restriction decreases endogenous oxidative molecular damage and increases mitochondrial biogenesis and uncoupling protein 4 in rat brain. Rejuvenation Res 2007, 10:473-484.
• [119]Ruiz MC, Ayala V, Portero-Otin M, Requena JR, Barja G, Pamplona R: Protein methionine content and MDA-lysine adducts are inversely related to maximum life span in the heart of mammals. Mech Ageing Dev 2005, 126:1106-1114.
• [120]Moskovitz J, Bar-Noy S, Williams WM, Requena J, Berlett BS, Stadtman ER: Methionine sulfoxide reductase (MsrA) is a regulator of antioxidant defense and lifespan in mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001, 98:12920-12925.
• [121]Hidiroglou N, Gilani GS, Long L, Zhao X, Madere R, Cockell K, Belonge B, Ratnayake WM, Peace R: The influence of dietary vitamin E, fat, and methionine on blood cholesterol profile, homocysteine levels, and oxidizability of low density lipoprotein in the gerbil. J Nutr Biochem 2004, 15:730-740.
• [122]McCarty MF, Barroso-Aranda J, Contreras F: The low-methionine content of vegan diets may make methionine restriction feasible as a life extension strategy. Med Hypotheses 2009, 72:125-128.
• [123]Ibrahim WH, Habib HM, Jarrar AH, Al Baz SA: Effect of Ramadan fasting on markers of oxidative stress and serum biochemical markers of cellular damage in healthy subjects. Ann Nutr Metab 2008, 53:175-181.
• [124]Hallak MH, Nomani MZ: Body weight loss and changes in blood lipid levels in normal men on hypocaloric diets during Ramadan fasting. Am J Clin Nutr 1988, 48:1197-1210.
• [125]Lamine F, Bouguerra R, Jabrane J, Marrakchi Z, Ben Rayana MC, Ben Slama C, Gaigi S: Food intake and high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels changes during ramadan fasting in healthy young subjects. Tunis Med 2006, 84:647-650.
• [126]el Ati J, Beji C, Danguir J: Increased fat oxidation during Ramadan fasting in healthy women: an adaptative mechanism for body-weight maintenance. Am J Clin Nutr 1995, 62:302-307.
• [127]Maislos M, Khamaysi N, Assali A, Abou-Rabiah Y, Zvili I, Shany S: Marked increase in plasma high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol after prolonged fasting during Ramadan. Am J Clin Nutr 1993, 57:640-642.
• [128]Ziaee V, Razaei M, Ahmadinejad Z, Shaikh H, Yousefi R, Yarmohammadi L, Bozorgi F, Behjati MJ: The changes of metabolic profile and weight during Ramadan fasting. Singapore Med J 2006, 47:409-414.
• [129]Aksungar FB, Eren A, Ure S, Teskin O, Ates G: Effects of intermittent fasting on serum lipid levels, coagulation status and plasma homocysteine levels. Ann Nutr Metab 2005, 49:77-82.
• [130]Aksungar FB, Topkaya AE, Akyildiz M: Interleukin-6, C-reactive protein and biochemical parameters during prolonged intermittent fasting. Ann Nutr Metab 2007, 51:88-95.
• [131]Lamri-Senhadji MY, El Kebir B, Belleville J, Bouchenak M: Assessment of dietary consumption and time-course of changes in serum lipids and lipoproteins before, during and after Ramadan in young Algerian adults. Singapore Med J 2009, 50:288-294.
• [132]Salehi M, Neghab M: Effects of fasting and a medium calorie balanced diet during the holy month Ramadan on weight, BMI and some blood parameters of overweight males. Pak J Biol Sci 2007, 10:968-971.
• [133]Husain R, Duncan MT, Cheah SH, Ch'ng SL: Effects of fasting in Ramadan on tropical Asiatic Moslems. Br J Nutr 1987, 58:41-48.
• [134]Ramadan J, Telahoun G, Al-Zaid NS, Barac-Nieto M: Responses to exercise, fluid, and energy balances during Ramadan in sedentary and active males. Nutrition 1999, 15:735-739.
• [135]Ramadan J: Does fasting during Ramadan alter body composition, blood constituents and physical performance? Med Princ Pract 2002, 11(Suppl 2):41-46.
• [136]Sarraf-Zadegan N, Atashi M, Naderi GA, Baghai AM, Asgary S, Fatehifar MR, Samarian H, Zarei M: The effect of fasting in Ramadan on the values and interrelations between biochemical, coagulation and hematological factors. Ann Saudi Med 2000, 20:377-381.
• [137]Chamsi-Pasha H, Ahmed WH: The effect of fasting in Ramadan on patients with heart disease. Saudi Med J 2004, 25:47-51.
• [138]Fakhrzadeh H, Larijani B, Sanjari M, Baradar-Jalili R, Amini MR: Effect of Ramadan fasting on clinical and biochemical parameters in healthy adults. Ann Saudi Med 2003, 23:223-226.
• [139]Perk G, Ghanem J, Aamar S, Ben-Ishay D, Bursztyn M: The effect of the fast of Ramadan on ambulatory blood pressure in treated hypertensives. J Hum Hypertens 2001, 15:723-725.
• [140]Chaouachi A, Coutts AJ, Wong del P, Roky R, Mbazaa A, Amri M, Chamari K: Haematological, inflammatory, and immunological responses in elite judo athletes maintaining high training loads during Ramadan. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2009, 34:907-915.
• [141]Kassab SE, Abdul-Ghaffar T, Nagalla DS, Sachdeva U, Nayar U: Serum leptin and insulin levels during chronic diurnal fasting. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2003, 12:483-487.
• [142]Roky R, Iraki L, HajKhlifa R, Lakhdar Ghazal N, Hakkou F: Daytime alertness, mood, psychomotor performances, and oral temperature during Ramadan intermittent fasting. Ann Nutr Metab 2000, 44:101-107.
• [143]Roky R, Chapotot F, Benchekroun MT, Benaji B, Hakkou F, Elkhalifi H, Buguet A: Daytime sleepiness during Ramadan intermittent fasting: polysomnographic and quantitative waking EEG study. J Sleep Res 2003, 12:95-101.
• [144]Afifi ZE: Daily practices, study performance and health during the Ramadan fast. J R Soc Health 1997, 117:231-235.
• [145]Kadri N, Tilane A, El Batal M, Taltit Y, Tahiri SM, Moussaoui D: Irritability during the month of Ramadan. Psychosom Med 2000, 62:280-285.
• [146]Iraki L, Bogdan A, Hakkou F, Amrani N, Abkari A, Touitou Y: Ramadan diet restrictions modify the circadian time structure in humans. A study on plasma gastrin, insulin, glucose, and calcium and on gastric pH. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1997, 82:1261-1273.
• [147]Leiper JB, Molla AM, Molla AM: Effects on health of fluid restriction during fasting in Ramadan. Eur J Clin Nutr 2003, 57(Suppl 2):S30-8.
• [148]Meckel Y, Ismaeel A, Eliakim A: The effect of the Ramadan fast on physical performance and dietary habits in adolescent soccer players. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008, 102:651-657.
• [149]Bogdan A, Bouchareb B, Touitou Y: Ramadan fasting alters endocrine and neuroendocrine circadian patterns. Meal-time as a synchronizer in humans? Life Sci 2001, 68:1607-1615.
• [150]Haghdoost AA, Poorranjbar M: The interaction between physical activity and fasting on the serum lipid profile during Ramadan. Singapore Med J 2009, 50:897-901.
• [151]Papadaki A, Vardavas C, Hatzis C, Kafatos A: Calcium, nutrient and food intake of Greek Orthodox Christian monks during a fasting and non-fasting week. Public Health Nutr 2008, 11:1022-1029.
• [152]Sarri KO, Tzanakis NE, Linardakis MK, Mamalakis GD, Kafatos AG: Effects of Greek Orthodox Christian Church fasting on serum lipids and obesity. BMC Public Health 2003, 3:16. BioMed Central Full Text
• [153]Sarri KO, Linardakis MK, Bervanaki FN, Tzanakis NE, Kafatos AG: Greek Orthodox fasting rituals: a hidden characteristic of the Mediterranean diet of Crete. Br J Nutr 2004, 92:277-284.
• [154]Sarri KO, Kafatos AG, Higgins S: Is religious fasting related to iron status in Greek Orthodox Christians? Br J Nutr 2005, 94:198-203.
• [155]Sarri K, Linardakis M, Codrington C, Kafatos A: Does the periodic vegetarianism of Greek Orthodox Christians benefit blood pressure? Prev Med 2007, 44:341-348.
• [156]Dwyer JT: Health aspects of vegetarian diets. Am J Clin Nutr 1988, 48:712-738.
• [157]Key TJ, Appleby PN, Rosell MS: Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets. Proc Nutr Soc 2006, 65:35-41.
• [158]Bloomer RJ, Kabir MM, Canale RE, Trepanowski JF, Marshall KE, Farney TM, Hammond KG: Effect of a 21 day Daniel Fast on metabolic and cardiovascular disease risk factors in men and women. Lipids Health Dis 2010, 9:94. BioMed Central Full Text
• [159]Bloomer RJ, Kabir MM, Trepanowski JF, Canale RE, Farney TM: A 21 day Daniel Fast improves selected biomarkers of antioxidant status and oxidative stress in men and women. Nutr Metab (Lond) 2011, 8:17. BioMed Central Full Text