Racial differences in the built environment—body mass index relationship? A geospatial analysis of adolescents in urban neighborhoods

International Journal of Health Geographics

Gary G Bennett¹  Steven J Melly⁴  Jared Aldstadt⁵  Steven L Gortmaker³  Marcia C Castro²  Dustin T Duncan³ 

[1] Department of Psychology and Neuroscience & Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA;Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA;Harvard Prevention Research Center on Nutrition and Physical Activity, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA;Department of Environmental Health, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA;Department of Geography, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA

关键词: Race effects;    Adolescents;    BMI;    Built environment;    Neighborhood effects;    Spatial epidemiology;   

Others  :  821954
DOI  :  10.1186/1476-072X-11-11

 received in 2012-02-15, accepted in 2012-04-26,  发布年份 2012

【 摘 要 】

Background

Built environment features of neighborhoods may be related to obesity among adolescents and potentially related to obesity-related health disparities. The purpose of this study was to investigate spatial relationships between various built environment features and body mass index (BMI) z-score among adolescents, and to investigate if race/ethnicity modifies these relationships. A secondary objective was to evaluate the sensitivity of findings to the spatial scale of analysis (i.e. 400- and 800-meter street network buffers).

Methods

Data come from the 2008 Boston Youth Survey, a school-based sample of public high school students in Boston, MA. Analyses include data collected from students who had georeferenced residential information and complete and valid data to compute BMI z-score (n = 1,034). We built a spatial database using GIS with various features related to access to walking destinations and to community design. Spatial autocorrelation in key study variables was calculated with the Global Moran’s I statistic. We fit conventional ordinary least squares (OLS) regression and spatial simultaneous autoregressive error models that control for the spatial autocorrelation in the data as appropriate. Models were conducted using the total sample of adolescents as well as including an interaction term for race/ethnicity, adjusting for several potential individual- and neighborhood-level confounders and clustering of students within schools.

Results

We found significant positive spatial autocorrelation in the built environment features examined (Global Moran’s I most ≥ 0.60; all p = 0.001) but not in BMI z-score (Global Moran’s I = 0.07, p = 0.28). Because we found significant spatial autocorrelation in our OLS regression residuals, we fit spatial autoregressive models. Most built environment features were not associated with BMI z-score. Density of bus stops was associated with a higher BMI z-score among Whites (Coefficient: 0.029, p < 0.05). The interaction term for Asians in the association between retail destinations and BMI z-score was statistically significant and indicated an inverse association. Sidewalk completeness was significantly associated with a higher BMI z-score for the total sample (Coefficient: 0.010, p < 0.05). These significant associations were found for the 800-meter buffer.

Conclusion

Some relationships between the built environment and adolescent BMI z-score were in the unexpected direction. Our findings overall suggest that the built environment does not explain a large proportion of the variation in adolescent BMI z-score or racial disparities in adolescent obesity. However, there are some differences by race/ethnicity that require further research among adolescents.

【 授权许可】

   
2012 Duncan et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Ogden CL, Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Johnson CL: Prevalence and trends in overweight among US children and adolescents, 1999-2000. JAMA 2002, 288(14):1728-1732.
• [2]Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM: Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999-2010. JAMA 2012, 307(5):483-490.
• [3]Estimated prevalence of overweight in the United States Public Health Rep 1954, 69(11):1084-1086.
• [4]Lovasi GS, Hutson MA, Guerra M, Neckerman KM: Built environments and obesity in disadvantaged populations. Epidemiol Rev 2009, 31:7-20.
• [5]Bennett GG, Wolin KY, Duncan DT: Social Determinants of Obesity. In Obesity Epidemiology: Methods and Applications. Edited by Hu FB. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK; 2008:342-376.
• [6]Galvez MP, Pearl M, Yen IH: Childhood obesity and the built environment. Curr Opin Pediatr 2010, 22(2):202-207.
• [7]Dunton GF, Kaplan J, Wolch J, Jerrett M, Reynolds KD: Physical environmental correlates of childhood obesity: a systematic review. Obes Rev 2009, 10(4):393-402.
• [8]Baron RM, Kenny DA: The Moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategies, and statistical considerations. J Pers Soc Psychol 1986, 51(6):1173-1182.
• [9]Papas MA, Alberg AJ, Ewing R, Helzlsouer KJ, Gary TL, Klassen AC: The built environment and obesity. Epidemiol Rev 2007, 29:129-143.
• [10]Wong D: The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem (MAUP). In The SAGE Handbook of Spatial Analysis. Edited by Fotheringham AS, Rogerson PA. SAGE Publications, London; 2009:105-124.
• [11]Openshaw S, Taylor P: A million or so correlation coefficients: three experiments on the modifiable area unit problem. In Statistical Applications in the Spatial Sciences. Edited by Wrigley N. Pion Ltd, London, UK; 1979:127-144.
• [12]Chaix B, Merlo J, Chauvin P: Comparison of a spatial approach with the multilevel approach for investigating place effects on health: the example of healthcare utilisation in France. J Epidemiol Community Health 2005, 59(6):517-526.
• [13]Chaix B, Merlo J, Subramanian SV, Lynch J, Chauvin P: Comparison of a spatial perspective with the multilevel analytical approach in neighborhood studies: the case of mental and behavioral disorders due to psychoactive substance use in Malmo, Sweden, 2001. Am J Epidemiol 2005, 162(2):171-182.
• [14]Edwards KL, Cade JE, Ransley JK, Clarke GP: A cross-sectional study examining the pattern of childhood obesity in Leeds: affluence is not protective. Arch Dis Child 2010, 95(2):94-99.
• [15]Michimi A, Wimberly MC: Spatial patterns of obesity and associated risk factors in the conterminous U.S. Am J Prev Med 2010, 39(2):e1-e12.
• [16]Pouliou T, Elliott SJ: An exploratory spatial analysis of overweight and obesity in Canada. Prev Med 2009, 48(4):362-367.
• [17]Drewnowski A, Rehm CD, Solet D: Disparities in obesity rates: analysis by ZIP code area. Soc Sci Med 2007, 65(12):2458-2463.
• [18]Chen DR, Wen TH: Elucidating the changing socio-spatial dynamics of neighborhood effects on adult obesity risk in Taiwan from 2001 to 2005. Health Place 2010, 16(6):1248-1258.
• [19]Huang L, Tiwari RC, Pickle LW, Zou Z: Covariate adjusted weighted normal spatial scan statistics with applications to study geographic clustering of obesity and lung cancer mortality in the United States. Stat Med 2010, 29(23):2410-2422.
• [20]LeSage J, Pace KR: Introduction to Spatial Econometrics. FL: CRC Press, Boca Raton; 2009.
• [21]Ward MD, Gleditsch KS: Spatial Regression Models. Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand Oaks, CA; 2008.
• [22]Waller LA, Gotway CA: Applied Spatial Statistics for Public Health Data. Wiley-Interscience, Hoboken NJ; 2004.
• [23]Anselin L, Bera AK: Spatial dependence in linear regression models with an introduction to spatial econometrics. In Handbook of Applied Economic Statistics. Edited by Ullah A, Giles DEA. Marcel Dekker, New York; 1998:237-289.
• [24]Bailey TC, Gratrell AC: Interactive Spatial Data Analysis. Longman Scientific & Technical; J. Wiley, Harlow Essex, England; 1995.
• [25]Azrael D, Johnson RM, Molnar BE, Vriniotis M, Dunn EC, Duncan DT, Hemenway D: Creating a youth violence data system for Boston, Massachusetts. Aust N Z J Criminol 2009, 42(3):406-421.
• [26]Boston public schools at a glance 2007–2008 In BPS Facts No 12, 1st edition. Boston Public Schools Communication Office, Boston (MA); 2007.
• [27]Green JG, Dunn EC, Johnson RM, Molnar BE: A Multilevel Investigation of the Association between School Context and Adolescent Nonphysical Bullying. J Sch Violence 2011, 10(2):133-149.
• [28]Krizek KJ: Operationalizing neighborhood accessibility for land use-travel behavior research and regional modeling. J Plan Educ Res 2003, 22:270-287.
• [29]Cradock AL, Melly SJ, Allen JG, Morris JS, Gortmaker SL: Youth destinations associated with objective measures of physical activity in adolescents. J Adolesc Health 2009, 45(3 Suppl):S91-S98.
• [30]http://www.mass.gov/mgis
• [31]http://infousa.Com
• [32]Matthews SA: Spatial Polygamy and the Heterogeneity of Place: Studying People and Place via Egocentric Methods. In Communities, Neighborhoods, and Health: Expanding the Boundaries of Place. Edited by Burton LM, Kemp SP, Leung M, Matthews SA, Takeuchi DT. Springer, New York, NY; 2011:35-55.
• [33]Colabianchi N, Dowda M, Pfeiffer KA, Porter DE, Almeida MJ, Pate RR: Towards an understanding of salient neighborhood boundaries: adolescent reports of an easy walking distance and convenient driving distance. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2007, 4:66. BioMed Central Full Text
• [34]Timperio A, Crawford D, Telford A, Salmon J: Perceptions about the local neighborhood and walking and cycling among children. Prev Med 2004, 38(1):39-47.
• [35]Oliver LN, Schuurman N, Hall AW: Comparing circular and network buffers to examine the influence of land use on walking for leisure and errands. Int J Health Geogr 2007, 6:41. BioMed Central Full Text
• [36]Kuczmarski RJ, Ogden CL, Guo SS, Grummer-Strawn LM, Flegal KM, Mei Z, Wei R, Curtin LR, Roche AF, Johnson CL: 2000 CDC Growth Charts for the United States: methods and development. Vital Health Stat 2002, 11(246):1-190.
• [37]A SAS Program for the CDC Growth Charts http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpao/growthcharts/resources/sas.htm webcite
• [38]Field AE, Laird N, Steinberg E, Fallon E, Semega-Janneh M, Yanovski JA: Which metric of relative weight best captures body fatness in children? Obes Res 2003, 11(11):1345-1352.
• [39]Color Brewer 2.0 http://www.colorbrewer2.org webcite
• [40]Jenks GF: The Data Model Concept in Statistical Mapping. Int Yearbook Cartography 1967, 7:186-190.
• [41]Anselin L: Under the hood. issues in the specification and interpretation of spatial regression models. Agric Econ 2002, 27(3):247-267.
• [42]Getis A, Aldstadt J: Constructing the Spatial Weights Matrix Using a Local Statistic. Geogr Anal 2004, 36(2):90-104.
• [43]Griffith DA: Some Guidelines for Specifying the Geographic Weights Matrix Contained in Spatial Statistical Models. In Practical Handbook of Spatial Statistics. Edited by Arlinghaus SL. CRC, Boca Raton; 1996:65-82.
• [44]Bivand RS, Pebesma EJ, Gómez-Rubio V: Applied Spatial Data Analysis with R. Springer, New York, NY; 2008.
• [45]Kelejian HH, Prucha I: Generalized Moments Estimator for the Autoregressive Parameter in a Spatial Model. Int Econ Rev 1999, 40(2):509-533.
• [46]Anselin L, Bera AK, Florax R, Yoon MJ: Simple diagnostic tests for spatial dependence. Reg Sci Urban Econ 1996, 26(1):77-104.
• [47]Anselin L: Lagrange multiplier test diagnostics for spatial dependence and spatial heterogeneity. Geogr Anal 1988, 20(1):1-17.
• [48]Pace K, LeSage JP: A Spatial Hausman Test. Econ Lett 2008, 101(3):282-284.
• [49]Sharkey JR, Horel S, Han D, Huber JC: Association between neighborhood need and spatial access to food stores and fast food restaurants in neighborhoods of colonias. Int J Health Geogr 2009, 8:9. BioMed Central Full Text
• [50]Talen E: The social equality of urban service distribution an exploration of park access in Pueblo Colorado and Macon Georgia. Urban Geography 1997, 18(6):521-541.
• [51]Talen E, Anselin L: Assessing spatial equity: an evaluation of measures of accessibility to public playgrounds. Environment and Planning A 1998, 30:595-613.
• [52]Auchincloss AH, Diez Roux AV, Brown DG, Raghunathan TE, Erdmann CA: Filling the gaps: spatial interpolation of residential survey data in the estimation of neighborhood characteristics. Epidemiology 2007, 18(4):469-478.
• [53]Duncan DT, Aldstadt J, Whalen J, Melly SJ, Gortmaker SL: Validation of walk score for estimating neighborhood walkability: an analysis of four US metropolitan areas. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2011, 8(11):4160-4179.
• [54]Schuurman N, Peters PA, Oliver LN: Are obesity and physical activity clustered? A spatial analysis linked to residential density. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2009, 17(12):2202-2209.
• [55]Bell JF, Wilson JS, Liu GC: Neighborhood greenness and 2-year changes in body mass index of children and youth. Am J Prev Med 2008, 35(6):547-553.
• [56]Rogerson PA: Statistical methods for the detection of spatial clustering in case-control data. Stat Med 2006, 25(5):811-823.
• [57]Lange D, Wahrendorf M, Siegrist J, Plachta-Danielzik S, Landsberg B, Muller MJ: Associations between neighbourhood characteristics, body mass index and health-related behaviours of adolescents in the Kiel Obesity Prevention Study: a multilevel analysis. Eur J Clin Nutr 2011, 65(6):711-719.
• [58]Crawford D, Cleland V, Timperio A, Salmon J, Andrianopoulos N, Roberts R, Giles-Corti B, Baur L, Ball K: The longitudinal influence of home and neighbourhood environments on children's body mass index and physical activity over 5 years: the CLAN study. Int J Obes (Lond) 2010, 34(7):1177-1187.
• [59]Slater SJ, Ewing R, Powell LM, Chaloupka FJ, Johnston LD, O'Malley PM: The association between community physical activity settings and youth physical activity, obesity, and body mass index. J Adolesc Health 2010, 47(5):496-503.
• [60]Oreskovic NM, Winickoff JP, Kuhlthau KA, Romm D, Perrin JM: Obesity and the built environment among Massachusetts children. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2009, 48(9):904-912.
• [61]Potwarka LR, Kaczynski AT, Flack AL: Places to play: association of park space and facilities with healthy weight status among children. J Community Health 2008, 33(5):344-350.
• [62]Kligerman M, Sallis JF, Ryan S, Frank LD, Nader PR: Association of neighborhood design and recreation environment variables with physical activity and body mass index in adolescents. Am J Health Promot 2007, 21(4):274-277.
• [63]Norman GJ, Nutter SK, Ryan S, Sallis JF, Calfas KJ, Patrick K: Community design and access to recreational facilities as correlates of adolescent physical activity and body-mass index. J Phys Act Health 2006, 3(Suppl 1):S118-S128.
• [64]Wolch J, Jerrett M, Reynolds K, McConnell R, Chang R, Dahmann N, Brady K, Gilliland F, Su JG, Berhane K: Childhood obesity and proximity to urban parks and recreational resources: A longitudinal cohort study. Health Placein press
• [65]Gordon-Larsen P, Nelson MC, Page P, Popkin BM: Inequality in the built environment underlies key health disparities in physical activity and obesity. Pediatrics 2006, 117(2):417-424.
• [66]Scott MM, Dubowitz T, Cohen DA: Regional differences in walking frequency and BMI: what role does the built environment play for Blacks and Whites? Health Place 2009, 15(3):882-887.
• [67]Schwartz BS, Stewart WF, Godby S, Pollak J, Dewalle J, Larson S, Mercer DG, Glass TA: Body mass index and the built and social environments in children and adolescents using electronic health records. Am J Prev Med 2011, 41(4):e17-28.
• [68]Grafova IB: Overweight children: assessing the contribution of the built environment. Prev Med 2008, 47(3):304-308.
• [69]Jerrett M, McConnell R, Chang CC, Wolch J, Reynolds K, Lurmann F, Gilliland F, Berhane K: Automobile traffic around the home and attained body mass index: a longitudinal cohort study of children aged 10-18 years. Prev Med 2010, 50(Suppl 1):S50-58.
• [70]Rundle AG, Bader MD, Richards CA, Neckerman KM, Teitler JO: Using Google Street View to audit neighborhood environments. Am J Prev Med 2011, 40(1):94-100.
• [71]Taylor BT, Fernando P, Bauman AE, Williamson A, Craig JC, Redman S: Measuring the quality of public open space using Google Earth. Am J Prev Med 2011, 40(2):105-112.
• [72]Badland HM, Opit S, Witten K, Kearns RA, Mavoa S: Can virtual streetscape audits reliably replace physical streetscape audits? J Urban Health 2010, 87(6):1007-1016.
• [73]Clarke P, Ailshire J, Melendez R, Bader M, Morenoff J: Using Google Earth to conduct a neighborhood audit: reliability of a virtual audit instrument. Health Place 2010, 16(6):1224-1229.
• [74]Bedimo-Rung AL, Mowen AJ, Cohen DA: The significance of parks to physical activity and public health: a conceptual model. Am J Prev Med 2005, 28(2 Suppl 2):159-168.
• [75]Barrett JL, Hannon C, Keefe L, Gortmaker SL, Cradock AL: Playground renovations and quality at public parks in Boston, Massachusetts, 1996–2007. Prev Chronic Dis 2011, 8(4):A72.
• [76]Crawford D, Timperio A, Giles-Corti B, Ball K, Hume C, Roberts R, Andrianopoulos N, Salmon J: Do features of public open spaces vary according to neighbourhood socio-economic status? Health Place 2008, 14(4):889-893.
• [77]Loukaitou-Sideris A, Stieglitz O: Children in Los Angeles parks: a study of equity, quality and children's satisfaction with neighbourhood parks. The Town Planning Review 2002, 73(4):467-488.
• [78]Logan JR, Stults B: The Persistence of Segregation in the Metropolis: New Findings from the 2010 Census. Census Brief prepared for Project US2010. 2011.
• [79]Iceland J, Weinberg DH, Steinmetz E: Racial and Ethnic Residential Segregation in the United States: 1980-2000. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington; 2002.
• [80]Loukaitou-Sideris A, Sideris A: What brings children to the park? analysis and measurement of the variables affecting children's use of parks. J Am Plann Assoc 2010, 76(1):89-107.
• [81]Ries AV, Voorhees CC, Roche KM, Gittelsohn J, Yan AF, Astone NM: A quantitative examination of park characteristics related to park use and physical activity among urban youth. J Adolesc Health 2009, 45(3 Suppl):S64-70.
• [82]Gobster PH: Managing urban parks for a racially and ethnically diverse clientele. Leis Sci 2002, 24(2):143-159.
• [83]Tinsley HEA, Tinsley DJ, Croskeys CE: Park usage, social milieu, and psychosocial benefits of park use reported by older urban park users from 4 ethnic groups. Leis Sci 2002, 24(2):199-218.
• [84]Rundle A, Roux AV, Free LM, Miller D, Neckerman KM, Weiss CC: The urban built environment and obesity in New York City: a multilevel analysis. Am J Health Promot 2007, 21(4 Suppl):326-334.
• [85]MacDonald JM, Stokes RJ, Cohen DA, Kofner A, Ridgeway GK: The effect of light rail transit on body mass index and physical activity. Am J Prev Med 2010, 39(2):105-112.
• [86]Besser LM, Dannenberg AL: Walking to public transit: steps to help meet physical activity recommendations. Am J Prev Med 2005, 29(4):273-280.
• [87]Lachapelle U, Frank L, Saelens BE, Sallis JF, Conway TL: Commuting by public transit and physical activity: where you live, where you work, and how you get there. J Phys Act Health 2011, 8(Suppl 1):S72-82.
• [88]Liggett R, Loukaitou-Siderisa A, Iseki H: Bus Stop-Environment Connection: Do Characteristics of the Built Environment Correlate with Bus Stop Crime? Transportation Research Record 1760 2001. Paper No 01-0441:20-27
• [89]Loukaitou-Sideris A, Liggett R, Iseki H: The Geography of Transit Crime: Documentation and Evaluation of Crime Incidence on and around the Green Line Stations in Los Angeles. J Plan Educ Res 2002, 22(2):135-151.
• [90]Seto EY, Holt A, Rivard T, Bhatia R: Spatial distribution of traffic induced noise exposures in a US city: an analytic tool for assessing the health impacts of urban planning decisions. Int J Health Geogr 2007, 6:24. BioMed Central Full Text
• [91]Borradaile KE, Sherman S, Vander Veur SS, McCoy T, Sandoval B, Nachmani J, Karpyn A, Foster GD: Snacking in children: the role of urban corner stores. Pediatrics 2009, 124(5):1293-1298.
• [92]Li F, Harmer P, Cardinal BJ, Bosworth M, Johnson-Shelton D, Moore JM, Acock A, Vongjaturapat N: Built environment and 1-year change in weight and waist circumference in middle-aged and older adults: Portland Neighborhood Environment and Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 2009, 169(4):401-408.
• [93]Fitzhugh EC, Bassett DR, Evans MF: Urban trails and physical activity: a natural experiment. Am J Prev Med 2010, 39(3):259-262.
• [94]Goodman E, Hinden BR, Khandelwal S: Accuracy of teen and parental reports of obesity and body mass index. Pediatrics 2000, 106(1 Pt 1):52-58.
• [95]Brownson RC, Hoehner CM, Day K, Forsyth A, Sallis JF: Measuring the built environment for physical activity: state of the science. Am J Prev Med 2009, 36(4 Suppl):S99-S123. e112
• [96]Matthews SA, Moudon AV, Daniel M: Work group II: Using Geographic Information Systems for enhancing research relevant to policy on diet, physical activity, and weight. Am J Prev Med 2009, 36(4 Suppl):S171-176.
• [97]Hoehner CM, Schootman M: Concordance of commercial data sources for neighborhood-effects studies. J Urban Health 2010, 87(4):713-725.
• [98]Boone JE, Gordon-Larsen P, Stewart JD, Popkin BM: Validation of a GIS facilities database: quantification and implications of error. Ann Epidemiol 2008, 18(5):371-377.
• [99]McElroy JA, Remington PL, Trentham-Dietz A, Robert SA, Newcomb PA: Geocoding addresses from a large population-based study: lessons learned. Epidemiology 2003, 14(4):399-407.
• [100]Oliver MN, Matthews KA, Siadaty M, Hauck FR, Pickle LW: Geographic bias related to geocoding in epidemiologic studies. Int J Health Geogr 2005, 4:29. BioMed Central Full Text
• [101]Diez Roux AV: Neighborhoods and health: where are we and were do we go from here? Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 2007, 55(1):13-21.
• [102]Messer LC: Invited commentary: Beyond the metrics for measuring neighborhood effects. Am J Epidemiol 2007, 165(8):868-871. discussion 872-863
• [103]Oakes JM: Commentary: advancing neighbourhood-effects research–selection, inferential support, and structural confounding. Int J Epidemiol 2006, 35(3):643-647.
• [104]Saelens BE, Frank LD, Auffrey C, Whitaker RC, Burdette HL, Colabianchi N: Measuring physical environments parks and playgrounds: EAPRS instrument of development and inter-rater reliability. J Phys Act Health 2006, 3(1S):S190-S207.
• [105]Boone-Heinonen J, Gordon-Larsen P, Guilkey DK, Jacobs DR, Popkin BM: Environment and Physical Activity Dynamics: The Role of Residential Self-selection. Psychol Sport Exerc 2011, 12(1):54-60.
• [106]Cao X, Mokhtarian PL, Handy SL: Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behavior: a focus on empirical findings. Transp Rev 2009, 29(3):359-395.
• [107]Mokhtarian P, Cao X: Examining the impacts of residential self selection on travel behavior: A focus on methodologies. Transportation Research B 2008, 42(3):204-228.
• [108]Downs TJ, Ogneva-Himmelberger Y, Aupont O, Wang Y, Raj A, Zimmerman P, Goble R, Taylor O, Churchill L, Lemay C, et al.: Vulnerability-based spatial sampling stratification for the National Children's Study, Worcester County, Massachusetts: capturing health-relevant environmental and sociodemographic variability. Environ Health Perspect 2010, 118(9):1318-1325.
• [109]Delmelle E: Spatial Sampling. In The SAGE Handbook of Spatial Analysis. Edited by Fotheringham AS, Rogerson PA. SAGE Publications, London; 2009:183-206.
• [110]Lee C, Moudon AV, Courbois JY: Built environment and behavior: spatial sampling using parcel data. Ann Epidemiol 2006, 16(5):387-394.