A review of feed efficiency in swine: biology and application

Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology

Néstor A. Gutiérrez¹  Mariana C. Rossoni-Serão¹  John F. Patience¹ 

[1] Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames 50011-3150, IA, USA

关键词: Swine;    Residual feed intake;    Feed efficiency;    Energy;    Caloric efficiency;   

Others  :  1224554
DOI  :  10.1186/s40104-015-0031-2

 received in 2014-09-02, accepted in 2015-06-23,  发布年份 2015

【 摘 要 】

Feed efficiency represents the cumulative efficiency with which the pig utilizes dietary nutrients for maintenance, lean gain and lipid accretion. It is closely linked with energy metabolism, as the oxidation of carbon-containing components in the feed drive all metabolic processes. While much is known about nutrient utilization and tissue metabolism, blending these subjects into a discussion on feed efficiency has proven to be difficult. For example, while increasing dietary energy concentration will almost certainly increase feed efficiency, the correlation between dietary energy concentration and feed efficiency is surprisingly low. This is likely due to the plethora of non-dietary factors that impact feed efficiency, such as the environment and health as well as individual variation in maintenance requirements, body composition and body weight.

Nonetheless, a deeper understanding of feed efficiency is critical at many levels. To individual farms, it impacts profitability. To the pork industry, it represents its competitive position against other protein sources. To food economists, it means less demand on global feed resources. There are environmental and other societal implications as well.

Interestingly, feed efficiency is not always reported simply as a ratio of body weight gain to feed consumed. This review will explain why this arithmetic calculation, as simple as it initially seems, and as universally applied as it is in science and commerce, can often be misleading due to errors inherent in recording of both weight gain and feed intake.

This review discusses the importance of feed efficiency, the manner in which it can be measured and reported, its basis in biology and approaches to its improvement. It concludes with a summary of findings and recommendations for future efforts.

【 授权许可】

   
2015 Patience et al.

【 图 表 】

Fig. 1.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Gutierrez NA, Patience JF. The metabolic basis of feed-energy efficiency in swine. In Proc Al Leman Conference. Veterinary Continuing Education. University of Minnesota. St. Paul, MN; 2012:19–26.
• [2]Patience JF: The Influence of Dietary Energy on Feed Efficiency in Grow-Finish Swine. In Feed Efficiency in Swine. Edited by Patience JF. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen; 2012:101-129.
• [3]Nyachoti CM, Zijlstra RT, de Lange CFM, Patience JF: Voluntary feed intake in swine: A review of the main determining factors and potential approaches for accurate predictions. Can J Anim Sci 2004, 84:549-566.
• [4]Gaines AM, Peterson BA, Mendoza OF: Herd management factors that influence whole herd feed efficiency. In Feed efficiency in swine. Edited by Patience JF. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen; 2012:15-39.
• [5]Young JM, Dekkers JCM: The Genetic and Biological Basis of Residual Feed Intake as a Measure of Feed Efficiency. In Feed Efficiency in Swine. Edited by Patience JF. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen; 2012:153-166.
• [6]Weber EK, Patience JF, Stalder KJ: Wean-to-finish feeder space availability effects on nursery and finishing pig performance and total tract digestibility in a commercial setting when feeding dried distillers grains with solubles. J Anim Sci 2015, 93:1905-1915.
• [7]Baxter MR: The Design of the Feeding Environment for the Pig. PhD Thesis. University of Aberdeen; 1986.
• [8]Noblet J, Fortune H, Dupire C, Dubois S: Digestible, metabolisable and net energy values of 13 feedstuffs for growing pigs: effect of energy system. Livestock Prod Sci. 1993, 42:131-49.
• [9]Koch RM, Gregory KE, Chambers D, Swiger LA: Efficiency of feed use in beef cattle. J Anim Sci 1963, 22:486-494.
• [10]Kennedy BW, Vanderwerf JHJ, Meuwissen THE: Genetic and statistical properties of residual feed-intake. J Anim Sci 1993, 71:3239-3250.
• [11]Asmus MD, DeRouchey JM, Tokach MD, Dritz SS, Houser TA, Nelssen JL, et al.: Effects of lowering dietary fiber before marketing on finishing pig growth performance, carcass characteristics, carcass fat quality, and intestinal weights. J Anim Sci 2014, 92:119-128.
• [12]Agyekum AK, Slominski BA, Nyachoti CM: Organ weight, intestinal morphology and fasting whole-body oxygen consumption in growing pigs fed diets containing distillers dried grains with solubles alone or in combination with a multienzyme supplement. J Anim Sci 2012, 90:3032-3040.
• [13]Jorgensen H, Zhao XQ, Eggum BO: The influence of dietary fibre and environmental temperature on the development of the gastrointestinal tract, digestibility, degree of fermentation in the hind-gut and energy metabolism in pigs. Br J Nutr 1996, 75:365-378.
• [14]Yen JT: Oxygen consumption and energy flux of porcine splanchnic tissues. In Proc. of the VII International symposium on digestive physiology in pigs. EAAP Publ 1997, 88:260-269.
• [15]Nyachoti CM, de Lange CFM, McBride BW, Leeson S, Schulze H: Dietary influence on organ size and in vitro oxygen consumption by visceral organs of growing pigs. Livestock Prod Sci 2000, 65:229-237.
• [16]Wood J, Whittemore C: Pig Meat and Carcass Quality. In Whittemore’s Science and Practice of Pig Production. Edited by Kyriazakis I, Whittemore CT. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford; 2006:4-64.
• [17]de Lange CFM, Birkett SH, Morel PCH: Protein, Fat, and Bone Tissue Growth in Swine. In Swine nutrition. Edited by Lewis A, Southern LL. CRC Press, Boca Raton; 2000:65-81.
• [18]Knap PW: Allocation of Resources to Maintenance. In Resource Allocation Theory Applied to Farm Animal Production. Edited by Rauw WM. CAB International, Wallingford; 2009:118-136.
• [19]Bauman DE, McCutcheon SN, Steinhour WD, Eppard PJ, Sechen SJ: Sources of variation and prospects for improvement of productive efficiency in the dairy cow: a review. J Anim Sci 1985, 60:583-592.
• [20]Davey AWF, Grainger C, Mackenzie DDS, Flux DS, Wilson GF, Brookes IM, et al.: Nutritional and physiological studies of differences between Friesian cows of high or low genetic merit. Proc New Zealand Soc Anim Prod 1983, 43:67.
• [21]Whittemore CT: An approach to pig growth modeling. J Anim Sci. 1986, 63:615-21.
• [22]Whittemore CT, Fawcett RH: Theoretical aspects of a flexible model to simulate protein and lipid growth in pigs. Anim Prod 1976, 22:87-96.
• [23]Campbell RG, Taverner MR, Curic DM: Effects of sex and energy intake between 48 and 90 kg live weight on protein deposition in growing pigs. Anim Prod 1985, 40:497-503.
• [24]Tullis JB: Protein Growth in Pigs. PhD Thesis. Univ. of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; 1982.
• [25]Elsbernd AJ: Nutrient utilization, Pork Quality, and Lysine Requirement of Immunological Castrates. Masters Thesis. Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, US; 2014.
• [26]NRC: Nutrient Requirements of Swine. 10th edition. Nat’l Acad Press, Washington, DC; 2012.
• [27]Patience JF, Beaulieu AD, Zijlstra RT, Nyachoti M, Gillis DA, Boyd RD, et al.: Performance and Body Compositional Responses to Changes in Dietary Energy Intake by Offspring of line 65 sires. Monograph 02–09, Prairie Swine Centre, Saskatoon; 2002.
• [28]Boddicker N, Gabler NK, Spurlock ME, Nettleton D, Dekkers JCM: Effects of ad libitum and restricted feed intake on growth performance and body composition of Yorkshire pigs selected for reduced residual feed intake. J Anim Sci. 2011, 89:40-51.
• [29]Cai W, Casey DS, Dekkers JCM: Selection response and genetic parameters for residual feed intake in Yorkshire swine. J Anim Sci 2008, 86:287-298.
• [30]Harris AJ, Patience JF, Lonergan SM, Dekkers JM, Gabler NK: Improved nutrient digestibility and retention partially explains feed efficiency gains in pigs selected for low residual feed intake. J Anim Sci 2012, 90:164-166.
• [31]Cruzen SM, Harris A, Hollinger JK, Punt RM, Grubbs JK, Selsby JT, et al.: Evidence of decreased muscle protein turnover in gilts selected for low residual feed intake. J Anim Sci 2013, 91:4007-4016.
• [32]Grubbs JK, Fritchen AN, Huff-Lonergan E, Dekkers JCM, Gabler NK, Lonergan SM: Divergent genetic selection for residual feed intake impacts mitochondria reactive oxygen species production in pigs. J Anim Sci 2013, 91:2133-2140.
• [33]Lefaucheur L, Lebert B, Ecolan P, Louveau I, Damon M, Prunier A, et al.: Muscle characteristics and meat quality traits are affected by divergent selection on residual feed intake in pigs. J Anim Sci 2011, 89:996-1010.
• [34]Faure J, Lefaucheur L, Bonhomme N, Ecolan P, Meteau K, Coustard KM, et al.: Consequences of divergent selection for residual feed intake in pigs on muscle energy metabolism and meat quality. Meat Sci 2013, 93:37-45.
• [35]Smith RM, Gabler NK, Young JM, Cai W, Boddicker NJ, Anderson MJ, et al.: Effect of selection for decrease residual feed intake on composition and quality of fresh pork. J Anim Sci 2011, 89:192-200.
• [36]Gilbert H, Bidanel JP, Gruand J, Caritez JC, Billon Y, Guillouet P, et al.: Genetic parameters for residual feed intake in growing pigs, with emphasis on genetic relationships with carcass and meat quality traits. J Anim Sci 2007, 85:3182-3188.
• [37]Johnson RW: Fueling the Immune Response: What’s the Cost. In Feed Efficiency in Swine. Edited by Patience JF. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen; 2012:211-224.
• [38]Kyriazakis I, Tolkamp BJ, Hutchins MR: Towards a functional explanation for the occurrence of anorexia during parasitic infections. Anim Behav 1998, 25:269-273.
• [39]Kyriazakis I, Sandberg FB: The problem of predicting the partitioning of scarce resources during sickness and health in pigs. In Mechanistic Modeling in Pig and Poultry Production. Edited by Gous R, Morris T, Fischer C. CAB International, Wallingford; 2006:117-142.
• [40]van Heugten E, Coffey MT, Spears JW: Effects of immune challenge, dietary energy density, and source of energy on performance and immunity in weanling pigs. J Anim Sci 1996, 74:2431-2440.
• [41]Rakhshandeh A, Dekkers JCM, Kerr BJ, Weber TE, English J, Gabler NK: Effect of immune system stimulation and divergent selection for residual feed intake on digestive capacity of the small intestine in growing pigs. J Anim Sci 2012, 90:233-235.
• [42]Noblet J, van Milgen J: Energy value of pig feeds: effect of pig body weight and energy evaluation system. J Anim Sci 2004, 82(E-Suppl):229-238.
• [43]Knap PW, Wang L: Pig Breeding for Improved Feed Efficiency. In Feed Efficiency in Swine. Edited by Patience JF. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen; 2012:167-181.
• [44]Van Milgen J, Bernier JF, Lecozler Y, Dubois S, Noblet J: Major determinants of fasting heat production and energetic cost of activity in growing pigs of different body weight and breed/castration combination. Brit J Nutr 1998, 79:509-517.
• [45]Quiniou N, Noblet J, van Milgen J, Dubois S: Modelling heat production and energy balance in group-housed growing pigs exposed to low or high ambient temperatures. Brit J Nutr 2001, 85:97-106.
• [46]Romanyukha AA, Rudnev SG, Sidorov IA: Energy cost of infection burden: An approach to understanding the dynamics of host-pathogen interactions. J Theor Biol 2006, 241:1-13.
• [47]Dritz S: Influence of Health on Feed Efficiency. In Feed Efficiency in Swine. Edited by Patience JF. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen; 2012:183-210.
• [48]Johnson LA: Sex preselection in swine: altered sex ratios in offspring following surgical insemination of flow sorted X- or Y-bearing sperm. Reprod Dom Anim 1991, 26:309-314.
• [49]Vazquez JM, Parilla I, Roca J, Gil MA, Cuello C, Vazquez JL, et al.: Sex-sorting sperm by low cytometry in pigs: Issues and perspectives. Theriogenology 2009, 71:80-88.
• [50]Zamaratskaia G, Squires EJ: Biochemical, nutritional and genetic effects on boar taint in entire male pigs. Animal 2008, 3:1508-1521.
• [51]Dunshea FR, D’Souza DN, Pethick DW, Harper GS, Warner RD: Effects of dietary factors and other metabolic modifiers on quality and nutritional value of meat. Meat Sci 2005, 71:8-38.
• [52]Beaulieu AD, Williams NH, Patience JF: Response to dietary digestible energy concentration in growing pigs fed cereal-grain based diets. J Anim Sci 2009, 87:965-976.
• [53]De la Llata M, Dritz SS, Tokach MD, Goodband RD, Nelssen JL: Effects of dietary fat on growth performance and carcass characteristics of growing-finishing pigs reared in a commercial environment. J Anim Sci 2001, 79:2643-2650.
• [54]Oresanya TF, Beaulieu AD, Patience JF: Investigations of energy metabolism in weanling barrows: The interaction of dietary energy concentration and daily feed (energy) intake. J Anim Sci 2008, 86:348-363.
• [55]Whittemore C, Kyriazakis I: Growth and Body Composition Changes in Pigs. In Whittemore’s Science and Practice of Pig Production. Edited by Kyriazakis I, Whittemore CT. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford; 2006:65-103.
• [56]Healy BJ, Hancock JD, Kennedy GA, Bramel-Cox PJ, Behnke KC, Hines RH: Optimum particle size of corn and soft sorghum for nursery pigs. J Anim Sci 1994, 72:2227-2236.
• [57]Wondra KJ, Hancock JD, Behnke KC, Hines RH, Stark CR: Effect of particle size and pelleting on growth performance, nutrient digestibility and stomach morphology. J Anim Sci 1995, 73:757-763.
• [58]Mavromichalis I, Hanck JD, Senne BW, Ggugle TL, Kennedy GA, Hines RH, et al.: Enzyme supplementation and particle size of wheat in diets for finishing pigs. J Anim Sci 2000, 78:3086-3095.
• [59]Patience JF, Chipman A, Jones CK, Scheer T: Varying corn particle size distribution affects the digestibility of energy for the growing pig. J Anim Sci 2011, 89(E-Suppl. 2):127.
• [60]Patience JF, Thacker PA, de Lange CFM: Swine Nutrition Guide. 2nd edition. Prairie Swine Centre, Saskatoon; 1995.
• [61]Myers AJ, Goodband RD, Tokach MD, Dritz SS, DeRouchey JM, Nelssen JL: The effects of diet form and feeder design on the growth performance of finishing pigs. J Anim Sci 2013, 91:3420-3428.
• [62]Stark CR: Pellet quality I. Pellet quality and its effects on swine performance. PhD Thesis. Kansas State University, Grain Sciences Department; 1994.
• [63]Noblet J, Karege C, Dubois S, van Milgen J: Metabolic utilization of energy and maintenance requirements in growing pigs: Effects of sex and genotype. J Anim Sci 1999, 77:1208-1216.
• [64]Renaudeau D, Gilbert H, Noblet J: Effect of Climatic Environment on Feed Efficiency in Swine. In Feed Efficiency in Swine. Edited by Patience JF. Wageningen Academic Press, Wageningen; 2012:183-210.
• [65]Renaudeau D, Gourdine JL, St-Pierre NR: A meta-analysis of the effects of high ambient temperature on growth performance of growing-finishing pigs. J Anim Sci 2011, 89:2220-2230.
• [66]Smith LF, Patience JF, Gonyou HW, Beaulieu AD, Boyd RD: The impact of feeder adjustment and group size/floor space allowance on the performance of nursery pigs. J Swine Health Prod 2004, 12:111-118.
• [67]Noblet J, Perez JM: Prediction of digestibility of nutrients and energy values of pig diets from chemical analysis. J Anim Sci 1993, 71:3389-3398.