Epidemiologic studies of modifiable factors associated with cognition and dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis

BMC Public Health

Youfa Wang¹  Alan B Zonderman²  Alison Teel³  Alyssa A Gamaldo²  Hind A Beydoun³  May A Beydoun² 

[1] John Hopkins Global Center on Childhood Obesity, Where Systems Science Meets Public Health, Department of International Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA;Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences, National Institute on Aging, NIA/NIH/IRP, 251 Bayview Blvd., Suite 100, Room #: 04B118, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA;Graduate program in Public Health, Eastern Virginia Medical School, Norfolk, VA, UK

关键词: Meta-analysis;    Nutrition;    Risk factor;    Alzheimer’s disease;    Dementia;    Cognition;   

Others  :  1129116
DOI  :  10.1186/1471-2458-14-643

 received in 2013-09-11, accepted in 2014-05-13,  发布年份 2014

【 摘 要 】

Background

Cognitive impairment, including dementia, is a major health concern with the increasing aging population. Preventive measures to delay cognitive decline are of utmost importance. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most frequent cause of dementia, increasing in prevalence from <1% below the age of 60 years to >40% above 85 years of age.

Methods

We systematically reviewed selected modifiable factors such as education, smoking, alcohol, physical activity, caffeine, antioxidants, homocysteine (Hcy), n-3 fatty acids that were studied in relation to various cognitive health outcomes, including incident AD. We searched MEDLINE for published literature (January 1990 through October 2012), including cross-sectional and cohort studies (sample sizes > 300). Analyses compared study finding consistency across factors, study designs and study-level characteristics. Selecting studies of incident AD, our meta-analysis estimated pooled risk ratios (RR), population attributable risk percent (PAR%) and assessed publication bias.

Results

In total, 247 studies were retrieved for systematic review. Consistency analysis for each risk factor suggested positive findings ranging from ~38.9% for caffeine to ~89% for physical activity. Education also had a significantly higher propensity for “a positive finding” compared to caffeine, smoking and antioxidant-related studies. Meta-analysis of 31 studies with incident AD yielded pooled RR for low education (RR = 1.99; 95% CI: 1.30-3.04), high Hcy (RR = 1.93; 95% CI: 1.50-2.49), and current/ever smoking status (RR = 1.37; 95% CI: 1.23-1.52) while indicating protective effects of higher physical activity and n-3 fatty acids. Estimated PAR% were particularly high for physical activity (PAR% = 31.9; 95% CI: 22.7-41.2) and smoking (PAR%=31.09%; 95% CI: 17.9-44.3). Overall, no significant publication bias was found.

Conclusions

Higher Hcy levels, lower educational attainment, and decreased physical activity were particularly strong predictors of incident AD. Further studies are needed to support other potential modifiable protective factors, such as caffeine.

【 授权许可】

   
2014 Beydoun et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]de Champlain J, Wu R, Girouard H, Karas M, ELM A, Laplante MA, Wu L: Oxidative stress in hypertension. Clin Exp Hypertens 2004, 26:593-601.
• [2]Verhaeghen P, Salthouse TA: Meta-analyses of age-cognition relations in adulthood: estimates of linear and nonlinear age effects and structural models. Psychol Bull 1997, 122:231-249.
• [3]Moritz DJ, Kasl SV, Berkman LF: Cognitive functioning and the incidence of limitations in activities of daily living in an elderly community sample. Am J Epidemiol 1995, 141:41-49.
• [4]Lobo A, Launer LJ, Fratiglioni L, Andersen K, Di Carlo A, Breteler MM, Copeland JR, Dartigues JF, Jagger C, Martinez-Lage J, Soininen H, Hofman A: Prevalence of dementia and major subtypes in Europe: a collaborative study of population-based cohorts. Neurologic Diseases in the Elderly Research Group. Neurology 2000, 54:S4-9.
• [5]Li G, Shen YC, Chen CH, Zhao YW, Li SR, Lu M: An epidemiological survey of age-related dementia in an urban area of Beijing. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1989, 79:557-563.
• [6]Fichter MM, Meller I, Schroppel H, Steinkirchner R: Dementia and cognitive impairment in the oldest old in the community. Prevalence and comorbidity. Br J Psychiatry 1995, 166:621-629.
• [7]Ankri J, Poupard M: Prevalence and incidence of dementia among the very old. Review of the literature. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 2003, 51:349-360.
• [8]Jorm AF, Jolley D: The incidence of dementia: a meta-analysis. Neurology 1998, 51:728-733.
• [9]Ott A, Breteler MM, van Harskamp F, Claus JJ, van der Cammen TJ, Grobbee DE, Hofman A: Prevalence of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia: association with education. The Rotterdam study. BMJ 1995, 310:970-973.
• [10]Liu HC, Lin KN, Teng EL, Wang SJ, Fuh JL, Guo NW, Chou P, Hu HH, Chiang BN: Prevalence and subtypes of dementia in Taiwan: a community survey of 5297 individuals. J Am Geriatr Soc 1995, 43:144-149.
• [11]McKhann G, Drachman D, Folstein M, Katzman R, Price D, Stadlan EM: Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease: report of the NINCDS-ADRDA work group under the auspices of Department of health and human services task force on Alzheimer's disease. Neurology 1984, 34:939-944.
• [12]McKhann GM, Knopman DS, Chertkow H, Hyman BT, Jack CR Jr, Kawas CH, Klunk WE, Koroshetz WJ, Manly JJ, Mayeux R, Mohs RC, Morris JC, Rossor MN, Scheltens P, Carrillo MC, Thies B, Weintraub S, Phelps CH: The diagnosis of dementia due to Alzheimer's disease: recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease. Alzheimers Dement 2011, 7:263-269.
• [13]Roman GC, Tatemichi TK, Erkinjuntti T, Cummings JL, Masdeu JC, Garcia JH, Amaducci L, Orgogozo JM, Brun A, Hofman A, et al.: Vascular dementia: diagnostic criteria for research studies. Report of the NINDS-AIREN international workshop. Neurology 1993, 43:250-260.
• [14]Hachinski VC, Iliff LD, Zilhka E, Du Boulay GH, McAllister VL, Marshall J, Russell RW, Symon L: Cerebral blood flow in dementia. Arch Neurol 1975, 32:632-637.
• [15]The Lund and Manchester Groups: Clinical and neuropathological criteria for frontotemporal dementia. The Lund and Manchester groups. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994, 57:416-418.
• [16]McKeith IG, Galasko D, Kosaka K, Perry EK, Dickson DW, Hansen LA, Salmon DP, Lowe J, Mirra SS, Byrne EJ, Lennox G, Quinn NP, Edwardson JA, Ince PG, Bergeron C, Burns A, Miller BL, Lovestone S, Collerton D, Jansen EN, Ballard C, de Vos RA, Wilcock GK, Jellinger KA, Perry RH: Consensus guidelines for the clinical and pathologic diagnosis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB): report of the consortium on DLB international workshop. Neurology 1996, 47:1113-1124.
• [17]Crecelius C: Diagnosis and treatment of non-Alzheimer's dementias. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2003, 4:H25-29.
• [18]Zekry D, Hauw JJ, Gold G: Mixed dementia: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002, 50:1431-1438.
• [19]Gorelick PB, Scuteri A, Black SE, Decarli C, Greenberg SM, Iadecola C, Launer LJ, Laurent S, Lopez OL, Nyenhuis D, Petersen RC, Schneider JA, Tzourio C, Arnett DK, Bennett DA, Chui HC, Higashida RT, Lindquist R, Nilsson PM, Roman GC, Sellke FW, Seshadri S, American Heart Association Stroke Council, Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, Council on Cardiovascular Nursing, Council on Cardiovascular Radiology and Intervention, and Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia: Vascular contributions to cognitive impairment and dementia: a statement for healthcare professionals from the american heart association/american stroke association. Stroke 2011, 42:2672-2713.
• [20]Barnes DE, Yaffe K: The projected effect of risk factor reduction on Alzheimer's disease prevalence. Lancet Neurol 2011, 10:819-828.
• [21]Zhang MY, Katzman R, Salmon D, Jin H, Cai GJ, Wang ZY, Qu GY, Grant I, Yu E, Levy P, et al.: The prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in Shanghai, China: impact of age, gender, and education. Ann Neurol 1990, 27:428-437.
• [22]Ogunniyi A, Lekwauwa UG, Osuntokun BO: Influence of education on aspects of cognitive functions in non-demented elderly Nigerians. Neuroepidemiology 1991, 10:246-250.
• [23]Dealberto MJ, Gagnon M, Barberger-Gateau P, Dartigues JF, Alperovitch A: [Influence of educational status on a screening test for dementia, the mini-mental state examination]. Rev Epidemiol Sante Publique 1992, 40:93-101.
• [24]Koivisto K, Helkala EL, Reinikainen KJ, Hanninen T, Mykkanen L, Laakso M, Pyorala K, Riekkinen PJ: Population-based dementia screening program in Kuopio: the effect of education, age, and sex on brief neuropsychological tests. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 1992, 5:162-171.
• [25]Evans DA, Beckett LA, Albert MS, Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Funkenstein HH, Taylor JO: Level of education and change in cognitive function in a community population of older persons. Ann Epidemiol 1993, 3:71-77.
• [26]Paykel ES, Brayne C, Huppert FA, Gill C, Barkley C, Gehlhaar E, Beardsall L, Girling DM, Pollitt P, O'Connor D: Incidence of dementia in a population older than 75 years in the United Kingdom. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994, 51:325-332.
• [27]White L, Katzman R, Losonczy K, Salive M, Wallace R, Berkman L, Taylor J, Fillenbaum G, Havlik R: Association of education with incidence of cognitive impairment in three established populations for epidemiologic studies of the elderly. J Clin Epidemiol 1994, 47:363-374.
• [28]Cobb JL, Wolf PA, Au R, White R, D'Agostino RB: The effect of education on the incidence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in the Framingham Study. Neurology 1995, 45:1707-1712.
• [29]Farmer ME, Kittner SJ, Rae DS, Bartko JJ, Regier DA: Education and change in cognitive function. The epidemiologic catchment area study. Ann Epidemiol 1995, 5:1-7.
• [30]Callahan CM, Hall KS, Hui SL, Musick BS, Unverzagt FW, Hendrie HC: Relationship of age, education, and occupation with dementia among a community-based sample of African Americans. Arch Neurol 1996, 53:134-140.
• [31]Hanninen T, Koivisto K, Reinikainen KJ, Helkala EL, Soininen H, Mykkanen L, Laakso M, Riekkinen PJ: Prevalence of ageing-associated cognitive decline in an elderly population. Age Ageing 1996, 25:201-205.
• [32]Christensen H, Korten AE, Jorm AF, Henderson AS, Jacomb PA, Rodgers B, Mackinnon AJ: Education and decline in cognitive performance: compensatory but not protective. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 1997, 12:323-330.
• [33]Evans DA, Hebert LE, Beckett LA, Scherr PA, Albert MS, Chown MJ, Pilgrim DM, Taylor JO: Education and other measures of socioeconomic status and risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a defined population of older persons. Arch Neurol 1997, 54:1399-1405.
• [34]Freidl W, Schmidt R, Stronegger WJ, Reinhart B: The impact of sociodemographic, environmental, and behavioral factors, and cerebrovascular risk factors as potential predictors of the mattis dementia rating scale. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 1997, 52:M111-116.
• [35]Kalmijn S, Feskens EJ, Launer LJ, Kromhout D: Longitudinal study of the effect of apolipoprotein e4 allele on the association between education and cognitive decline in elderly men. BMJ 1997, 314:34-35.
• [36]Kilander L, Nyman H, Boberg M, Lithell H: Cognitive function, vascular risk factors and education. A cross-sectional study based on a cohort of 70-year-old men. J Intern Med 1997, 242:313-321.
• [37]Schmand B, Smit J, Lindeboom J, Smits C, Hooijer C, Jonker C, Deelman B: Low education is a genuine risk factor for accelerated memory decline and dementia. J Clin Epidemiol 1997, 50:1025-1033.
• [38]Schmand B, Smit JH, Geerlings MI, Lindeboom J: The effects of intelligence and education on the development of dementia. A test of the brain reserve hypothesis. Psychol Med 1997, 27:1337-1344.
• [39]Cerhan JR, Folsom AR, Mortimer JA, Shahar E, Knopman DS, McGovern PG, Hays MA, Crum LD, Heiss G: Correlates of cognitive function in middle-aged adults. Atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study investigators. Gerontology 1998, 44:95-105.
• [40]De Ronchi D, Fratiglioni L, Rucci P, Paternico A, Graziani S, Dalmonte E: The effect of education on dementia occurrence in an Italian population with middle to high socioeconomic status. Neurology 1998, 50:1231-1238.
• [41]Lin RT, Lai CL, Tai CT, Liu CK, Yen YY, Howng SL: Prevalence and subtypes of dementia in southern Taiwan: impact of age, sex, education, and urbanization. J Neurol Sci 1998, 160:67-75.
• [42]Lyketsos CG, Chen LS, Anthony JC: Cognitive decline in adulthood: an 11.5-year follow-up of the Baltimore epidemiologic catchment area study. Am J Psychiatry 1999, 156:58-65.
• [43]Letenneur L, Gilleron V, Commenges D, Helmer C, Orgogozo JM, Dartigues JF: Are sex and educational level independent predictors of dementia and Alzheimer's disease? Incidence data from the PAQUID project. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1999, 66:177-183.
• [44]Ott A, van Rossum CT, van Harskamp F, van de Mheen H, Hofman A, Breteler MM: Education and the incidence of dementia in a large population-based study: the Rotterdam study. Neurology 1999, 52:663-666.
• [45]Aevarsson O, Skoog I: A longitudinal population study of the mini-mental state examination in the very old: relation to dementia and education. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2000, 11:166-175.
• [46]Qiu C, Backman L, Winblad B, Aguero-Torres H, Fratiglioni L: The influence of education on clinically diagnosed dementia incidence and mortality data from the Kungsholmen project. Arch Neurol 2001, 58:2034-2039.
• [47]Alvarado BE, Zunzunegui MV, Del Ser T, Beland F: Cognitive decline is related to education and occupation in a Spanish elderly cohort. Aging Clin Exp Res 2002, 14:132-142.
• [48]Cagney KA, Lauderdale DS: Education, wealth, and cognitive function in later life. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2002, 57:P163-172.
• [49]Herrera E Jr, Caramelli P, Silveira AS, Nitrini R: Epidemiologic survey of dementia in a community-dwelling Brazilian population. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2002, 16:103-108.
• [50]Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, Sacchetti L, Mariani E, Nativio V, Talerico T, Vettori C, Macini PL: Education, occupation, and prevalence of dementia: findings from the Conselice study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2002, 14:90-100.
• [51]Wight RG, Aneshensel CS, Seeman TE: Educational attainment, continued learning experience, and cognitive function among older men. J Aging Health 2002, 14:211-236.
• [52]Lee S, Kawachi I, Berkman LF, Grodstein F: Education, other socioeconomic indicators, and cognitive function. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 157:712-720.
• [53]Seeman TE, Huang MH, Bretsky P, Crimmins E, Launer L, Guralnik JM: Education and APOE-e4 in longitudinal cognitive decline: MacArthur studies of successful aging. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2005, 60:P74-83.
• [54]Lee S, Buring JE, Cook NR, Grodstein F: The relation of education and income to cognitive function among professional women. Neuroepidemiology 2006, 26:93-101.
• [55]Shadlen MF, Siscovick D, Fitzpatrick AL, Dulberg C, Kuller LH, Jackson S: Education, cognitive test scores, and black-white differences in dementia risk. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006, 54:898-905.
• [56]Zhang ZX, Zahner GE, Román GC, Liu XH, Wu CB, Hong Z, Hong X, Tang MN, Zhou B, Qu QM, Zhang XJ, Li H: Socio-demographic variation of dementia subtypes in china: methodology and results of a prevalence study in Beijing, Chengdu, Shanghai, and Xian. Neuroepidemiology 2006, 27:177-187.
• [57]Zhou DF, Wu CS, Qi H, Fan JH, Sun XD, Como P, Qiao YL, Zhang L, Kieburtz K: Prevalence of dementia in rural China: impact of age, gender and education. Acta Neurol Scand 2006, 114:273-280.
• [58]Galasko D, Salmon D, Gamst A, Olichney J, Thal LJ, Silbert L, Kaye J, Brooks P, Adonay R, Craig UK, Schellenberg G, Borenstein AR: Prevalence of dementia in Chamorros on Guam: relationship to age, gender, education, and APOE. Neurology 2007, 68:1772-1781.
• [59]van Hooren SA, Valentijn AM, Bosma H, Ponds RW, van Boxtel MP, Jolles J: Cognitive functioning in healthy older adults aged 64–81: a cohort study into the effects of age, sex, and education. Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 2007, 14:40-54.
• [60]Christensen H, Batterham PJ, Mackinnon AJ, Anstey KJ, Wen W, Sachdev PS: Education, atrophy, and cognitive change in an epidemiological sample in early old age. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2009, 17:218-226.
• [61]Dotson VM, Kitner-Triolo MH, Evans MK, Zonderman AB: Effects of race and socioeconomic status on the relative influence of education and literacy on cognitive functioning. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2009, 15:580-589.
• [62]Gavrila D, Antunez C, Tormo MJ, Carles R, Garcia Santos JM, Parrilla G, Fortuna L, Jimenez J, Salmeron D, Navarro C: Prevalence of dementia and cognitive impairment in Southeastern Spain: the Ariadna study. Acta Neurol Scand 2009, 120:300-307.
• [63]Peters R, Beckett N, Geneva M, Tzekova M, Lu FH, Poulter R, Gainsborough N, Williams B, de Vernejoul MC, Fletcher A, Bulpitt C: Sociodemographic and lifestyle risk factors for incident dementia and cognitive decline in the HYVET. Age Ageing 2009, 38:521-527.
• [64]Wilson RS, Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Barnes LL, de Leon CF M, Evans DA: Educational attainment and cognitive decline in old age. Neurology 2009, 72:460-465.
• [65]Hamid TA, Krishnaswamy S, Abdullah SS, Momtaz YA: Sociodemographic risk factors and correlates of dementia in older Malaysians. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2010, 30:533-539.
• [66]Mathuranath PS, Cherian PJ, Mathew R, Kumar S, George A, Alexander A, Ranjith N, Sarma PS: Dementia in Kerala, South India: prevalence and influence of age, education and gender. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2010, 25:290-297.
• [67]Scazufca M, Almeida OP, Menezes PR: The role of literacy, occupation and income in dementia prevention: the Sao Paulo ageing & health study (SPAH). Int Psychogeriatr 2010, 22:1209-1215.
• [68]Castro-Costa E, Dewey ME, Uchoa E, Firmo JO, Lima-Costa MF, Stewart R: Trajectories of cognitive decline over 10 years in a Brazilian elderly population: the Bambui cohort study of aging. Cad Saude Publica 2011, 27(Suppl 3):S345-350.
• [69]Marengoni A, Fratiglioni L, Bandinelli S, Ferrucci L: Socioeconomic status during lifetime and cognitive impairment no-dementia in late life: the population-based aging in the Chianti area (InCHIANTI) study. J Alzheimers Dis 2011, 24:559-568.
• [70]Mejia-Arango S, Gutierrez LM: Prevalence and incidence rates of dementia and cognitive impairment no dementia in the Mexican population: data from the Mexican health and aging study. J Aging Health 2011, 23:1050-1074.
• [71]Zahodne LB, Glymour MM, Sparks C, Bontempo D, Dixon RA, MacDonald SW, Manly JJ: Education does not slow cognitive decline with aging: 12-year evidence from the victoria longitudinal study. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2011, 17:1039-1046.
• [72]Herbert LE, Scherr PA, Beckett LA, Albert MS, Rosner B, Taylor JO, Evans DA: Relation of smoking and low-to-moderate alcohol consumption to change in cognitive function: a longitudinal study in a defined community of older persons. Am J Epidemiol 1993, 137:881-891.
• [73]Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Commenges D, Barberger-Gateau P, Tessier JF, Orgogozo JM: Tobacco consumption and cognitive impairment in elderly people. A population-based study. Ann Epidemiol 1994, 4:449-454.
• [74]Ford AB, Mefrouche Z, Friedland RP, Debanne SM: Smoking and cognitive impairment: a population-based study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996, 44:905-909.
• [75]Galanis DJ, Petrovitch H, Launer LJ, Harris TB, Foley DJ, White LR: Smoking history in middle age and subsequent cognitive performance in elderly Japanese-American men. The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997, 145:507-515.
• [76]Broe GA, Creasey H, Jorm AF, Bennett HP, Casey B, Waite LM, Grayson DA, Cullen J: Health habits and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in old age: a prospective study on the effects of exercise, smoking and alcohol consumption. Aust N Z J Public Health 1998, 22:621-623.
• [77]Edelstein SL, Kritz-Silverstein D, Barrett-Connor E: Prospective association of smoking and alcohol use with cognitive function in an elderly cohort. J Womens Health 1998, 7:1271-1281.
• [78]Ott A, Slooter AJ, Hofman A, van Harskamp F, Witteman JC, Van Broeckhoven C, van Duijn CM, Breteler MM: Smoking and risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in a population-based cohort study: the Rotterdam study. Lancet 1998, 351:1840-1843.
• [79]Carmelli D, Swan GE, Reed T, Schellenberg GD, Christian JC: The effect of apolipoprotein E epsilon4 in the relationships of smoking and drinking to cognitive function. Neuroepidemiology 1999, 18:125-133.
• [80]Elwood PC, Gallacher JE, Hopkinson CA, Pickering J, Rabbitt P, Stollery B, Brayne C, Huppert FA, Bayer A: Smoking, drinking, and other life style factors and cognitive function in men in the Caerphilly cohort. J Epidemiol Community Health 1999, 53:9-14.
• [81]Cervilla JA, Prince M, Mann A: Smoking, drinking, and incident cognitive impairment: a cohort community based study included in the Gospel Oak project. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2000, 68:622-626.
• [82]Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I: Smoking and dementia in male British doctors: prospective study. BMJ 2000, 320:1097-1102.
• [83]Kalmijn S, van Boxtel MP, Verschuren MW, Jolles J, Launer LJ: Cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption in relation to cognitive performance in middle age. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 156:936-944.
• [84]Chen WT, Wang PN, Wang SJ, Fuh JL, Lin KN, Liu HC: Smoking and cognitive performance in the community elderly: a longitudinal study. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2003, 16:18-22.
• [85]Richards M, Jarvis MJ, Thompson N, Wadsworth ME: Cigarette smoking and cognitive decline in midlife: evidence from a prospective birth cohort study. Am J Public Health 2003, 93:994-998.
• [86]Tyas SL, White LR, Petrovitch H, Webster Ross G, Foley DJ, Heimovitz HK, Launer LJ: Mid-life smoking and late-life dementia: the Honolulu-Asia aging study. Neurobiol Aging 2003, 24:589-596.
• [87]Zhou H, Deng J, Li J, Wang Y, Zhang M, He H: Study of the relationship between cigarette smoking, alcohol drinking and cognitive impairment among elderly people in China. Age Ageing 2003, 32:205-210.
• [88]Juan D, Zhou DH, Li J, Wang JY, Gao C, Chen M: A 2-year follow-up study of cigarette smoking and risk of dementia. Eur J Neurol 2004, 11:277-282.
• [89]Ott A, Andersen K, Dewey ME, Letenneur L, Brayne C, Copeland JR, Dartigues JF, Kragh-Sorensen P, Lobo A, Martinez-Lage JM, Stijnen T, Hofman A, Launer LJ, EURODEM Incidence Research Group: Effect of smoking on global cognitive function in nondemented elderly. Neurology 2004, 62:920-924.
• [90]Solfrizzi V, Panza F, Colacicco AM, D'Introno A, Capurso C, Torres F, Grigoletto F, Maggi S, Del Parigi A, Reiman EM, Caselli RJ, Scafato E, Farchi G, Capurso A, Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging Working Group: Vascular risk factors, incidence of MCI, and rates of progression to dementia. Neurology 2004, 63:1882-1891.
• [91]Aleman A, Muller M, de Haan EH, van der Schouw YT: Vascular risk factors and cognitive function in a sample of independently living men. Neurobiol Aging 2005, 26:485-490.
• [92]Reitz C, Luchsinger J, Tang MX, Mayeux R: Effect of smoking and time on cognitive function in the elderly without dementia. Neurology 2005, 65:870-875.
• [93]Whitmer RA, Sidney S, Selby J, Johnston SC, Yaffe K: Midlife cardiovascular risk factors and risk of dementia in late life. Neurology 2005, 64:277-281.
• [94]Stewart MC, Deary IJ, Fowkes FG, Price JF: Relationship between lifetime smoking, smoking status at older age and human cognitive function. Neuroepidemiology 2006, 26:83-92.
• [95]Reitz C, den Heijer T, van Duijn C, Hofman A, Breteler MM: Relation between smoking and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: the Rotterdam study. Neurology 2007, 69:998-1005.
• [96]Nooyens AC, van Gelder BM, Verschuren WM: Smoking and cognitive decline among middle-aged men and women: the Doetinchem cohort study. Am J Public Health 2008, 98:2244-2250.
• [97]Sabia S, Marmot M, Dufouil C, Singh-Manoux A: Smoking history and cognitive function in middle age from the Whitehall II study. Arch Intern Med 2008, 168:1165-1173.
• [98]Alonso A, Mosley TH Jr, Gottesman RF, Catellier D, Sharrett AR, Coresh J: Risk of dementia hospitalisation associated with cardiovascular risk factors in midlife and older age: the Atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2009, 80:1194-1201.
• [99]Collins N, Sachs-Ericsson N, Preacher KJ, Sheffield KM, Markides K: Smoking increases risk for cognitive decline among community-dwelling older Mexican Americans. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2009, 17:934-942.
• [100]Huang CQ, Dong BR, Zhang YL, Wu HM, Liu QX: Association of cognitive impairment with smoking, alcohol consumption, tea consumption, and exercise among Chinese nonagenarians/centenarians. Cogn Behav Neurol 2009, 22:190-196.
• [101]Rusanen M, Rovio S, Ngandu T, Nissinen A, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Kivipelto M: Midlife smoking, apolipoprotein E and risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: a population-based cardiovascular risk factors, aging and dementia study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2010, 30:277-284.
• [102]Wang CC, Lu TH, Liao WC, Yuan SC, Kuo PC, Chuang HL, Lee MC, Yen CH: Cigarette smoking and cognitive impairment: a 10-year cohort study in Taiwan. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2010, 51:143-148.
• [103]Ronnemaa E, Zethelius B, Lannfelt L, Kilander L: Vascular risk factors and dementia: 40-year follow-up of a population-based cohort. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2011, 31:460-466.
• [104]Rusanen M, Kivipelto M, Quesenberry CP Jr, Zhou J, Whitmer RA: Heavy smoking in midlife and long-term risk of Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia. Arch Intern Med 2011, 171:333-339.
• [105]Sabia S, Elbaz A, Dugravot A, Head J, Shipley M, Hagger-Johnson G, Kivimaki M, Singh-Manoux A: Impact of smoking on cognitive decline in early old age: the Whitehall II cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2012, 69:627-635.
• [106]Hendrie HC, Gao S, Hall KS, Hui SL, Unverzagt FW: The relationship between alcohol consumption, cognitive performance, and daily functioning in an urban sample of older black Americans. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996, 44:1158-1165.
• [107]Dufouil C, Ducimetiere P, Alperovitch A: Sex differences in the association between alcohol consumption and cognitive performance. EVA study group. Epidemiology of vascular aging. Am J Epidemiol 1997, 146:405-412.
• [108]Elias PK, Elias MF, D'Agostino RB, Silbershatz H, Wolf PA: Alcohol consumption and cognitive performance in the Framingham heart study. Am J Epidemiol 1999, 150:580-589.
• [109]Bond GE, Burr R, McCurry SM, Graves AB, Larson EB: Alcohol, aging, and cognitive performance in a cohort of Japanese Americans aged 65 and older: the Kame project. Int Psychogeriatr 2001, 13:207-223.
• [110]Zuccala G, Onder G, Pedone C, Cesari M, Landi F, Bernabei R, Cocchi A: Dose-related impact of alcohol consumption on cognitive function in advanced age: results of a multicenter survey. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2001, 25:1743-1748.
• [111]Leroi I, Sheppard JM, Lyketsos CG: Cognitive function after 11.5 years of alcohol use: relation to alcohol use. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 156:747-752.
• [112]Krahn D, Freese J, Hauser R, Barry K, Goodman B: Alcohol use and cognition at mid-life: the importance of adjusting for baseline cognitive ability and educational attainment. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2003, 27:1162-1166.
• [113]Anttila T, Helkala EL, Viitanen M, Kareholt I, Fratiglioni L, Winblad B, Soininen H, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A, Kivipelto M: Alcohol drinking in middle age and subsequent risk of mild cognitive impairment and dementia in old age: a prospective population based study. BMJ 2004, 329:539.
• [114]Bond GE, Burr R, McCurry SM, Rice MM, Borenstein AR, Kukull WA, Teri L, Bowen JD, McCormick WC, Larson EB: Alcohol, gender, and cognitive performance: a longitudinal study comparing older Japanese and non-Hispanic white Americans. J Aging Health 2004, 16:615-640.
• [115]Britton A, Singh-Manoux A, Marmot M: Alcohol consumption and cognitive function in the Whitehall II study. Am J Epidemiol 2004, 160:240-247.
• [116]Bond GE, Burr RL, McCurry SM, Rice MM, Borenstein AR, Larson EB: Alcohol and cognitive performance: a longitudinal study of older Japanese Americans. The Kame project. Int Psychogeriatr 2005, 17:653-668.
• [117]Ganguli M, Vander Bilt J, Saxton JA, Shen C, Dodge HH: Alcohol consumption and cognitive function in late life: a longitudinal community study. Neurology 2005, 65:1210-1217.
• [118]Richards M, Hardy R, Wadsworth ME: Alcohol consumption and midlife cognitive change in the British 1946 birth cohort study. Alcohol Alcohol 2005, 40:112-117.
• [119]Rodgers B, Windsor TD, Anstey KJ, Dear KB, FJ A, Christensen H: Non-linear relationships between cognitive function and alcohol consumption in young, middle-aged and older adults: the PATH through life project. Addiction 2005, 100:1280-1290.
• [120]Stampfer MJ, Kang JH, Chen J, Cherry R, Grodstein F: Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on cognitive function in women. N Engl J Med 2005, 352:245-253.
• [121]Reid MC, Van Ness PH, Hawkins KA, Towle V, Concato J, Guo Z: Light to moderate alcohol consumption is associated with better cognitive function among older male veterans receiving primary care. J Geriatr Psychiatry Neurol 2006, 19:98-105.
• [122]Wright CB, Elkind MS, Luo X, Paik MC, Sacco RL: Reported alcohol consumption and cognitive decline: the northern Manhattan study. Neuroepidemiology 2006, 27:201-207.
• [123]Ngandu T, Helkala EL, Soininen H, Winblad B, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A, Kivipelto M: Alcohol drinking and cognitive functions: findings from the cardiovascular risk factors aging and dementia (CAIDE) study. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2007, 23:140-149.
• [124]Solfrizzi V, D'Introno A, Colacicco AM, Capurso C, Del Parigi A, Baldassarre G, Scapicchio P, Scafato E, Amodio M, Capurso A, Panza F: Alcohol consumption, mild cognitive impairment, and progression to dementia. Neurology 2007, 68:1790-1799.
• [125]Xu G, Liu X, Yin Q, Zhu W, Zhang R, Fan X: Alcohol consumption and transition of mild cognitive impairment to dementia. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009, 63:43-49.
• [126]Au Yeung SL, Jiang C, Zhang W, Lam TH, Cheng KK, Leung GM, Schooling CM: Moderate alcohol use and cognitive function in the Guangzhou Biobank cohort study. Ann Epidemiol 2010, 20:873-882.
• [127]Chan KK, Chiu KC, Chu LW: Association between alcohol consumption and cognitive impairment in Southern Chinese older adults. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2010, 25:1272-1279.
• [128]Corley J, Jia X, Brett CE, Gow AJ, Starr JM, Kyle JA, McNeill G, Deary IJ: Alcohol intake and cognitive abilities in old age: the Lothian birth cohort 1936 study. Neuropsychology 2011, 25:166-175.
• [129]Gross AL, Rebok GW, Ford DE, Chu AY, Gallo JJ, Liang KY, Meoni LA, Shihab HM, Wang NY, Klag MJ: Alcohol consumption and domain-specific cognitive function in older adults: longitudinal data from the Johns Hopkins precursors study. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2011, 66:39-47.
• [130]Sabia S, Gueguen A, Berr C, Berkman L, Ankri J, Goldberg M, Zins M, Singh-Manoux A: High alcohol consumption in middle-aged adults is associated with poorer cognitive performance only in the low socio-economic group. Results from the GAZEL cohort study. Addiction 2011, 106:93-101.
• [131]Zanjani F, Downer BG, Kruger TM, Willis SL, Schaie KW: Alcohol effects on cognitive change in middle-aged and older adults. Aging Ment Health 2013, 17(1):12-23.
• [132]Ho SC, Woo J, Sham A, Chan SG, Yu AL: A 3-year follow-up study of social, lifestyle and health predictors of cognitive impairment in a Chinese older cohort. Int J Epidemiol 2001, 30:1389-1396.
• [133]Laurin D, Verreault R, Lindsay J, MacPherson K, Rockwood K: Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment and dementia in elderly persons. Arch Neurol 2001, 58:498-504.
• [134]Schuit AJ, Feskens EJ, Launer LJ, Kromhout D: Physical activity and cognitive decline, the role of the apolipoprotein e4 allele. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001, 33:772-777.
• [135]Yaffe K, Barnes D, Nevitt M, Lui LY, Covinsky K: A prospective study of physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly women: women who walk. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161:1703-1708.
• [136]Verghese J, Lipton RB, Katz MJ, Hall CB, Derby CA, Kuslansky G, Ambrose AF, Sliwinski M, Buschke H: Leisure activities and the risk of dementia in the elderly. N Engl J Med 2003, 348:2508-2516.
• [137]Abbott RD, White LR, Ross GW, Masaki KH, Curb JD, Petrovitch H: Walking and dementia in physically capable elderly men. JAMA 2004, 292:1447-1453.
• [138]Lytle ME, Vander Bilt J, Pandav RS, Dodge HH, Ganguli M: Exercise level and cognitive decline: the MoVIES project. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2004, 18:57-64.
• [139]van Gelder BM, Tijhuis MA, Kalmijn S, Giampaoli S, Nissinen A, Kromhout D: Physical activity in relation to cognitive decline in elderly men: the FINE Study. Neurology 2004, 63:2316-2321.
• [140]Weuve J, Kang JH, Manson JE, Breteler MM, Ware JH, Grodstein F: Physical activity, including walking, and cognitive function in older women. JAMA 2004, 292:1454-1461.
• [141]Podewils LJ, Guallar E, Kuller LH, Fried LP, Lopez OL, Carlson M, Lyketsos CG: Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: findings from the cardiovascular health cognition study. Am J Epidemiol 2005, 161:639-651.
• [142]Rovio S, Kareholt I, Helkala EL, Viitanen M, Winblad B, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Nissinen A, Kivipelto M: Leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease. Lancet Neurol 2005, 4:705-711.
• [143]Sturman MT, Morris MC, de Leon CF M, Bienias JL, Wilson RS, Evans DA: Physical activity, cognitive activity, and cognitive decline in a biracial community population. Arch Neurol 2005, 62:1750-1754.
• [144]Karp A, Paillard-Borg S, Wang HX, Silverstein M, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L: Mental, physical and social components in leisure activities equally contribute to decrease dementia risk. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2006, 21:65-73.
• [145]Larson EB, Wang L, Bowen JD, McCormick WC, Teri L, Crane P, Kukull W: Exercise is associated with reduced risk for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older. Ann Intern Med 2006, 144:73-81.
• [146]Landi F, Russo A, Barillaro C, Cesari M, Pahor M, Danese P, Bernabei R, Onder G: Physical activity and risk of cognitive impairment among older persons living in the community. Aging Clin Exp Res 2007, 19:410-416.
• [147]Psaltopoulou T, Kyrozis A, Stathopoulos P, Trichopoulos D, Vassilopoulos D, Trichopoulou A: Diet, physical activity and cognitive impairment among elders: the EPIC-Greece cohort (European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition). Public Health Nutr 2008, 11:1054-1062.
• [148]Taaffe DR, Irie F, Masaki KH, Abbott RD, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, White LR: Physical activity, physical function, and incident dementia in elderly men: the Honolulu-Asia aging study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2008, 63:529-535.
• [149]Gallucci M, Antuono P, Ongaro F, Forloni PL, Albani D, Amici GP, Regini C: Physical activity, socialization and reading in the elderly over the age of seventy: what is the relation with cognitive decline? Evidence from "The Treviso Longeva (TRELONG) study". Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2009, 48:284-286.
• [150]Scarmeas N, Luchsinger JA, Schupf N, Brickman AM, Cosentino S, Tang MX, Stern Y: Physical activity, diet, and risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 2009, 302:627-637.
• [151]Yaffe K, Fiocco AJ, Lindquist K, Vittinghoff E, Simonsick EM, Newman AB, Satterfield S, Rosano C, Rubin SM, Ayonayon HN, Harris TB: Predictors of maintaining cognitive function in older adults: the Health ABC study. Neurology 2009, 72:2029-2035.
• [152]Chang M, Jonsson PV, Snaedal J, Bjornsson S, Saczynski JS, Aspelund T, Eiriksdottir G, Jonsdottir MK, Lopez OL, Harris TB, Gudnason V, Launer LJ: The effect of midlife physical activity on cognitive function among older adults: AGES–Reykjavik study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2010, 65:1369-1374.
• [153]Etgen T, Sander D, Huntgeburth U, Poppert H, Forstl H, Bickel H: Physical activity and incident cognitive impairment in elderly persons: the INVADE study. Arch Intern Med 2010, 170:186-193.
• [154]Gillum RF, Obisesan TO: Physical activity, cognitive function, and mortality in a US national cohort. Ann Epidemiol 2010, 20:251-257.
• [155]Middleton LE, Barnes DE, Lui LY, Yaffe K: Physical activity over the life course and its association with cognitive performance and impairment in old age. J Am Geriatr Soc 2010, 58:1322-1326.
• [156]Buchman AS, Boyle PA, Yu L, Shah RC, Wilson RS, Bennett DA: Total daily physical activity and the risk of AD and cognitive decline in older adults. Neurology 2012, 78:1323-1329.
• [157]Lin F, Friedman E, Quinn J, Chen DG, Mapstone M: Effect of leisure activities on inflammation and cognitive function in an aging sample. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2012, 54:e398-404.
• [158]Norton MC, Dew J, Smith H, Fauth E, Piercy KW, Breitner JC, Tschanz J, Wengreen H, Welsh-Bohmer K: Lifestyle behavior pattern is associated with different levels of risk for incident dementia and Alzheimer's disease: the Cache county study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012, 60:405-412.
• [159]Jarvis MJ: Does caffeine intake enhance absolute levels of cognitive performance? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1993, 110:45-52.
• [160]Johnson-Kozlow M, Kritz-Silverstein D, Barrett-Connor E, Morton D: Coffee consumption and cognitive function among older adults. Am J Epidemiol 2002, 156:842-850.
• [161]van Boxtel MP, Schmitt JA, Bosma H, Jolles J: The effects of habitual caffeine use on cognitive change: a longitudinal perspective. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003, 75:921-927.
• [162]Kuriyama S, Hozawa A, Ohmori K, Shimazu T, Matsui T, Ebihara S, Awata S, Nagatomi R, Arai H, Tsuji I: Green tea consumption and cognitive function: a cross-sectional study from the Tsurugaya Project 1. Am J Clin Nutr 2006, 83:355-361.
• [163]van Gelder BM, Buijsse B, Tijhuis M, Kalmijn S, Giampaoli S, Nissinen A, Kromhout D: Coffee consumption is inversely associated with cognitive decline in elderly European men: the FINE Study. Eur J Clin Nutr 2007, 61:226-232.
• [164]Ng TP, Feng L, Niti M, Kua EH, Yap KB: Tea consumption and cognitive impairment and decline in older Chinese adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2008, 88:224-231.
• [165]Eskelinen MH, Ngandu T, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Kivipelto M: Midlife coffee and tea drinking and the risk of late-life dementia: a population-based CAIDE study. J Alzheimers Dis 2009, 16:85-91.
• [166]Laitala VS, Kaprio J, Koskenvuo M, Raiha I, Rinne JO, Silventoinen K: Coffee drinking in middle age is not associated with cognitive performance in old age. Am J Clin Nutr 2009, 90:640-646.
• [167]Nurk E, Refsum H, Drevon CA, Tell GS, Nygaard HA, Engedal K, Smith AD: Intake of flavonoid-rich wine, tea, and chocolate by elderly men and women is associated with better cognitive test performance. J Nutr 2009, 139:120-127.
• [168]Smith AP: Caffeine, cognitive failures and health in a non-working community sample. Hum Psychopharmacol 2009, 24:29-34.
• [169]Corley J, Jia X, Kyle JA, Gow AJ, Brett CE, Starr JM, McNeill G, Deary IJ: Caffeine consumption and cognitive function at age 70: the Lothian birth cohort 1936 study. Psychosom Med 2010, 72:206-214.
• [170]Feng L, Gwee X, Kua EH, Ng TP: Cognitive function and tea consumption in community dwelling older Chinese in Singapore. J Nutr Health Aging 2010, 14:433-438.
• [171]Ritchie K, Artero S, Portet F, Brickman A, Muraskin J, Beanino E, Ancelin ML, Carriere I: Caffeine, cognitive functioning, and white matter lesions in the elderly: establishing causality from epidemiological evidence. J Alzheimers Dis 2010, 20(Suppl 1):S161-166.
• [172]Santos C, Lunet N, Azevedo A, de Mendonca A, Ritchie K, Barros H: Caffeine intake is associated with a lower risk of cognitive decline: a cohort study from Portugal. J Alzheimers Dis 2010, 20(Suppl 1):S175-185.
• [173]Arab L, Biggs ML, O'Meara ES, Longstreth WT, Crane PK, Fitzpatrick AL: Gender differences in tea, coffee, and cognitive decline in the elderly: the cardiovascular health study. J Alzheimers Dis 2011, 27:553-566.
• [174]Gelber RP, Petrovitch H, Masaki KH, Ross GW, White LR: Coffee intake in midlife and risk of dementia and its neuropathologic correlates. J Alzheimers Dis 2011, 23:607-615.
• [175]Feng L, Li J, Ng TP, Lee TS, Kua EH, Zeng Y: Tea drinking and cognitive function in oldest-old chinese. J Nutr Health Aging 2012, 16:754-758.
• [176]Jama JW, Launer LJ, Witteman JC, den Breeijen JH, Breteler MM, Grobbee DE, Hofman A: Dietary antioxidants and cognitive function in a population-based sample of older persons. The Rotterdam Study. Am J Epidemiol 1996, 144:275-280.
• [177]Mendelsohn AB, Belle SH, Stoehr GP, Ganguli M: Use of antioxidant supplements and its association with cognitive function in a rural elderly cohort: the MoVIES project. Monongahela Valley independent elders survey. Am J Epidemiol 1998, 148:38-44.
• [178]Morris MC, Beckett LA, Scherr PA, Hebert LE, Bennett DA, Field TS, Evans DA: Vitamin E and vitamin C supplement use and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 1998, 12:121-126.
• [179]Schmidt R, Hayn M, Reinhart B, Roob G, Schmidt H, Schumacher M, Watzinger N, Launer LJ: Plasma antioxidants and cognitive performance in middle-aged and older adults: results of the Austrian stroke prevention study. J Am Geriatr Soc 1998, 46:1407-1410.
• [180]Masaki KH, Losonczy KG, Izmirlian G, Foley DJ, Ross GW, Petrovitch H, Havlik R, White LR: Association of vitamin E and C supplement use with cognitive function and dementia in elderly men. Neurology 2000, 54:1265-1272.
• [181]Peacock JM, Folsom AR, Knopman DS, Mosley TH, Goff DC Jr, Szklo M: Dietary antioxidant intake and cognitive performance in middle-aged adults. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study investigators. Public Health Nutr 2000, 3:337-343.
• [182]Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, Breteler MM: Dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 2002, 287:3223-3229.
• [183]Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Aggarwal N, Wilson RS, Scherr PA: Dietary intake of antioxidant nutrients and the risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a biracial community study. JAMA 2002, 287:3230-3237.
• [184]Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Wilson RS: Vitamin E and cognitive decline in older persons. Arch Neurol 2002, 59:1125-1132.
• [185]Gray SL, Hanlon JT, Landerman LR, Artz M, Schmader KE, Fillenbaum GG: Is antioxidant use protective of cognitive function in the community-dwelling elderly? Am J Geriatr Pharmacother 2003, 1:3-10.
• [186]Grodstein F, Chen J, Willett WC: High-dose antioxidant supplements and cognitive function in community-dwelling elderly women. Am J Clin Nutr 2003, 77:975-984.
• [187]Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R: Antioxidant vitamin intake and risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003, 60:203-208.
• [188]Laurin D, Masaki KH, Foley DJ, White LR, Launer LJ: Midlife dietary intake of antioxidants and risk of late-life incident dementia: the Honolulu-Asia aging study. Am J Epidemiol 2004, 159:959-967.
• [189]Zandi PP, Anthony JC, Khachaturian AS, Stone SV, Gustafson D, Tschanz JT, Norton MC, Welsh-Bohmer KA, Breitner JC: Reduced risk of Alzheimer disease in users of antioxidant vitamin supplements: the Cache county study. Arch Neurol 2004, 61:82-88.
• [190]Cherubini A, Martin A, Andres-Lacueva C, Di Iorio A, Lamponi M, Mecocci P, Bartali B, Corsi A, Senin U, Ferrucci L: Vitamin E levels, cognitive impairment and dementia in older persons: the InCHIANTI study. Neurobiol Aging 2005, 26:987-994.
• [191]Engelhart MJ, Ruitenberg A, Meijer J, Kiliaan A, van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, Breteler MM: Plasma levels of antioxidants are not associated with Alzheimer's disease or cognitive decline. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2005, 19:134-139.
• [192]Fillenbaum GG, Kuchibhatla MN, Hanlon JT, Artz MB, Pieper CF, Schmader KE, Dysken MW, Gray SL: Dementia and Alzheimer's disease in community-dwelling elders taking vitamin C and/or vitamin E. Ann Pharmacother 2005, 39:2009-2014.
• [193]Maxwell CJ, Hicks MS, Hogan DB, Basran J, Ebly EM: Supplemental use of antioxidant vitamins and subsequent risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2005, 20:45-51.
• [194]Morris MC, Evans DA, Tangney CC, Bienias JL, Wilson RS, Aggarwal NT, Scherr PA: Relation of the tocopherol forms to incident Alzheimer disease and to cognitive change. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 81:508-514.
• [195]Akbaraly NT, Faure H, Gourlet V, Favier A, Berr C: Plasma carotenoid levels and cognitive performance in an elderly population: results of the EVA study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2007, 62:308-316.
• [196]Dunn JE, Weintraub S, Stoddard AM, Banks S: Serum alpha-tocopherol, concurrent and past vitamin E intake, and mild cognitive impairment. Neurology 2007, 68:670-676.
• [197]Wengreen HJ, Munger RG, Corcoran CD, Zandi P, Hayden KM, Fotuhi M, Skoog I, Norton MC, Tschanz J, Breitner JC, Welsh-Bohmer KA: Antioxidant intake and cognitive function of elderly men and women: the Cache county study. J Nutr Health Aging 2007, 11:230-237.
• [198]Fotuhi M, Zandi PP, Hayden KM, Khachaturian AS, Szekely CA, Wengreen H, Munger RG, Norton MC, Tschanz JT, Lyketsos CG, Breitner JC, Welsh-Bohmer K: Better cognitive performance in elderly taking antioxidant vitamins E and C supplements in combination with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: the Cache county study. Alzheimers Dement 2008, 4:223-227.
• [199]Gray SL, Anderson ML, Crane PK, Breitner JC, McCormick W, Bowen JD, Teri L, Larson E: Antioxidant vitamin supplement use and risk of dementia or Alzheimer's disease in older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008, 56:291-295.
• [200]Ravaglia G, Forti P, Lucicesare A, Pisacane N, Rietti E, Mangialasche F, Cecchetti R, Patterson C, Mecocci P: Plasma tocopherols and risk of cognitive impairment in an elderly Italian cohort. Am J Clin Nutr 2008, 87:1306-1313.
• [201]Devore EE, Kang JH, Stampfer MJ, Grodstein F: Total antioxidant capacity of diet in relation to cognitive function and decline. Am J Clin Nutr 2010, 92:1157-1164.
• [202]McNeill G, Jia X, Whalley LJ, Fox HC, Corley J, Gow AJ, Brett CE, Starr JM, Deary IJ: Antioxidant and B vitamin intake in relation to cognitive function in later life in the Lothian birth cohort 1936. Eur J Clin Nutr 2011, 65:619-626.
• [203]Kalmijn S, Launer LJ, Lindemans J, Bots ML, Hofman A, Breteler MM: Total homocysteine and cognitive decline in a community-based sample of elderly subjects: the Rotterdam study. Am J Epidemiol 1999, 150:283-289.
• [204]Duthie SJ, Whalley LJ, Collins AR, Leaper S, Berger K, Deary IJ: Homocysteine, B vitamin status, and cognitive function in the elderly. Am J Clin Nutr 2002, 75:908-913.
• [205]Prins ND, Den Heijer T, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Jolles J, Clarke R, Breteler MM: Homocysteine and cognitive function in the elderly: the Rotterdam scan study. Neurology 2002, 59:1375-1380.
• [206]Seshadri S, Beiser A, Selhub J, Jacques PF, Rosenberg IH, D'Agostino RB, Wilson PW, Wolf PA: Plasma homocysteine as a risk factor for dementia and Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med 2002, 346:476-483.
• [207]Miller JW, Green R, Ramos MI, Allen LH, Mungas DM, Jagust WJ, Haan MN: Homocysteine and cognitive function in the Sacramento area Latino study on aging. Am J Clin Nutr 2003, 78:441-447.
• [208]Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, Muscari A, Sacchetti L, Arnone G, Nativio V, Talerico T, Mariani E: Homocysteine and cognitive function in healthy elderly community dwellers in Italy. Am J Clin Nutr 2003, 77:668-673.
• [209]Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Shea S, Miller J, Green R, Mayeux R: Plasma homocysteine levels and risk of Alzheimer disease. Neurology 2004, 62:1972-1976.
• [210]Ariogul S, Cankurtaran M, Dagli N, Khalil M, Yavuz B: Vitamin B12, folate, homocysteine and dementia: are they really related? Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2005, 40:139-146.
• [211]Campbell AK, Jagust WJ, Mungas DM, Miller JW, Green R, Haan MN, Allen LH: Low erythrocyte folate, but not plasma vitamin B-12 or homocysteine, is associated with dementia in elderly Latinos. J Nutr Health Aging 2005, 9:39-43.
• [212]Elias MF, Sullivan LM, D'Agostino RB, Elias PK, Jacques PF, Selhub J, Seshadri S, Au R, Beiser A, Wolf PA: Homocysteine and cognitive performance in the Framingham offspring study: age is important. Am J Epidemiol 2005, 162:644-653.
• [213]Kado DM, Karlamangla AS, Huang MH, Troen A, Rowe JW, Selhub J, Seeman TE: Homocysteine versus the vitamins folate, B6, and B12 as predictors of cognitive function and decline in older high-functioning adults: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Am J Med 2005, 118:161-167.
• [214]Mooijaart SP, Gussekloo J, Frolich M, Jolles J, Stott DJ, Westendorp RG, de Craen AJ: Homocysteine, vitamin B-12, and folic acid and the risk of cognitive decline in old age: the Leiden 85-Plus study. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:866-871.
• [215]Quadri P, Fragiacomo C, Pezzati R, Zanda E, Tettamanti M, Lucca U: Homocysteine and B vitamins in mild cognitive impairment and dementia. Clin Chem Lab Med 2005, 43:1096-1100.
• [216]Ramos MI, Allen LH, Mungas DM, Jagust WJ, Haan MN, Green R, Miller JW: Low folate status is associated with impaired cognitive function and dementia in the Sacramento area Latino study on aging. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:1346-1352.
• [217]Ravaglia G, Forti P, Maioli F, Martelli M, Servadei L, Brunetti N, Porcellini E, Licastro F: Homocysteine and folate as risk factors for dementia and Alzheimer disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:636-643.
• [218]Schafer JH, Glass TA, Bolla KI, Mintz M, Jedlicka AE, Schwartz BS: Homocysteine and cognitive function in a population-based study of older adults. J Am Geriatr Soc 2005, 53:381-388.
• [219]Tucker KL, Qiao N, Scott T, Rosenberg I, Spiro A 3rd: High homocysteine and low B vitamins predict cognitive decline in aging men: the Veterans affairs normative aging study. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:627-635.
• [220]Elias MF, Robbins MA, Budge MM, Elias PK, Brennan SL, Johnston C, Nagy Z, Bates CJ: Homocysteine, folate, and vitamins B6 and B12 blood levels in relation to cognitive performance: the Maine-Syracuse study. Psychosom Med 2006, 68:547-554.
• [221]Feng L, Ng TP, Chuah L, Niti M, Kua EH: Homocysteine, folate, and vitamin B-12 and cognitive performance in older Chinese adults: findings from the Singapore longitudinal ageing study. Am J Clin Nutr 2006, 84:1506-1512.
• [222]van Raamt AF, Kalmijn S, Mali WP, van Zandvoort MJ, van der Graaf Y: Homocysteine level and cognitive function in patients with arterial disease: the second manifestations of ARTerial disease study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006, 54:575-579.
• [223]Clarke R, Birks J, Nexo E, Ueland PM, Schneede J, Scott J, Molloy A, Evans JG: Low vitamin B-12 status and risk of cognitive decline in older adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 86:1384-1391.
• [224]Haan MN, Miller JW, Aiello AE, Whitmer RA, Jagust WJ, Mungas DM, Allen LH, Green R: Homocysteine, B vitamins, and the incidence of dementia and cognitive impairment: results from the Sacramento area Latino study on aging. Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 85:511-517.
• [225]Kim J, Park MH, Kim E, Han C, Jo SA, Jo I: Plasma homocysteine is associated with the risk of mild cognitive impairment in an elderly Korean population. J Nutr 2007, 137:2093-2097.
• [226]Elias MF, Robbins MA, Budge MM, Elias PK, Dore GA, Brennan SL, Johnston C, Nagy Z: Homocysteine and cognitive performance: modification by the ApoE genotype. Neurosci Lett 2008, 430:64-69.
• [227]Kim JM, Kim SW, Shin IS, Yang SJ, Park WY, Kim SJ, Shin HY, Yoon JS: Folate, vitamin b(12), and homocysteine as risk factors for cognitive decline in the elderly. Psychiatry Investig 2008, 5:36-40.
• [228]Kim JM, Stewart R, Kim SW, Shin IS, Yang SJ, Shin HY, Yoon JS: Changes in folate, vitamin B12 and homocysteine associated with incident dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2008, 79:864-868.
• [229]Reitz C, Tang MX, Miller J, Green R, Luchsinger JA: Plasma homocysteine and risk of mild cognitive impairment. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2009, 27:11-17.
• [230]Redeen S, Ryberg A, Petersson F, Eriksson O, Nagga K, Borch K: Homocysteine levels in chronic gastritis and other conditions: relations to incident cardiovascular disease and dementia. Dig Dis Sci 2010, 55:351-358.
• [231]van den Kommer TN, Dik MG, Comijs HC, Jonker C, Deeg DJ: Homocysteine and inflammation: predictors of cognitive decline in older persons? Neurobiol Aging 2010, 31:1700-1709.
• [232]Perneczky R, Alexopoulos P, Kurz A, Bickel H: Cognitive reserve, homocysteine, and cognition in the Bavarian school sisters study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2011, 59:1754-1756.
• [233]Zylberstein DE, Lissner L, Bjorkelund C, Mehlig K, Thelle DS, Gustafson D, Ostling S, Waern M, Guo X, Skoog I: Midlife homocysteine and late-life dementia in women. A prospective population study. Neurobiol Aging 2011, 32:380-386.
• [234]Ford AH, Flicker L, Alfonso H, Hankey GJ, Norman PE, van Bockxmeer FM, Almeida OP: Plasma homocysteine and MTHFRC677T polymorphism as risk factors for incident dementia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2012, 83:70-75.
• [235]Ford AH, Flicker L, Hankey GJ, Norman P, van Bockxmeer FM, Almeida OP: Homocysteine, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase C677T polymorphism and cognitive impairment: the health in men study. Mol Psychiatry 2012, 17:559-566.
• [236]Kalmijn S, Feskens EJ, Launer LJ, Kromhout D: Polyunsaturated fatty acids, antioxidants, and cognitive function in very old men. Am J Epidemiol 1997, 145:33-41.
• [237]Kalmijn S, Launer LJ, Ott A, Witteman JC, Hofman A, Breteler MM: Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam study. Ann Neurol 1997, 42:776-782.
• [238]Engelhart MJ, Geerlings MI, Ruitenberg A, Van Swieten JC, Hofman A, Witteman JC, Breteler MM: Diet and risk of dementia: does fat matter?: the Rotterdam study. Neurology 2002, 59:1915-1921.
• [239]Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Wilson RS, Aggarwal N, Schneider J: Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 2003, 60:940-946.
• [240]Kalmijn S, van Boxtel MP, Ocke M, Verschuren WM, Kromhout D, Launer LJ: Dietary intake of fatty acids and fish in relation to cognitive performance at middle age. Neurology 2004, 62:275-280.
• [241]Morris MC, Evans DA, Tangney CC, Bienias JL, Wilson RS: Fish consumption and cognitive decline with age in a large community study. Arch Neurol 2005, 62(12):1849-53.
• [242]Barberger-Gateau P, Raffaitin C, Letenneur L, Berr C, Tzourio C, Dartigues JF, Alperovitch A: Dietary patterns and risk of dementia: the Three-City cohort study. Neurology 2007, 69:1921-1930.
• [243]Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Satia JA, Rosamond W, Folsom AR: Plasma n-3 fatty acids and risk of cognitive decline among older adults: the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 84(4):1103-11. In press
• [244]Cherubini A, Andres-Lacueva C, Martin A, Lauretani F, Iorio AD, Bartali B, Corsi A, Bandinelli S, Mattson MP, Ferrucci L: Low plasma N-3 fatty acids and dementia in older persons: the InCHIANTI study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2007, 62:1120-1126.
• [245]Dullemeijer C, Durga J, Brouwer IA, van de Rest O, Kok FJ, Brummer RJ, van Boxtel MP, Verhoef P: n 3 fatty acid proportions in plasma and cognitive performance in older adults. Am J Clin Nutr 2007, 86:1479-1485.
• [246]Beydoun MA, Kaufman JS, Sloane PD, Heiss G, Ibrahim J: n-3 Fatty acids, hypertension and risk of cognitive decline among older adults in the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) study. Public Health Nutr 2008, 11:17-29.
• [247]Eskelinen MH, Ngandu T, Helkala EL, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A, Soininen H, Kivipelto M: Fat intake at midlife and cognitive impairment later in life: a population-based CAIDE study. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 2008, 23:741-747.
• [248]Samieri C, Feart C, Letenneur L, Dartigues JF, Peres K, Auriacombe S, Peuchant E, Delcourt C, Barberger-Gateau P: Low plasma eicosapentaenoic acid and depressive symptomatology are independent predictors of dementia risk. Am J Clin Nutr 2008, 88:714-721.
• [249]Albanese E, Dangour AD, Uauy R, Acosta D, Guerra M, Guerra SS, Huang Y, Jacob KS, de Rodriguez JL, Noriega LH, Salas A, Sosa AL, Sousa RM, Williams J, Ferri CP, Prince MJ: Dietary fish and meat intake and dementia in Latin America, China, and India: a 10/66 dementia research group population-based study. Am J Clin Nutr 2009, 90:392-400.
• [250]Devore EE, Grodstein F, van Rooij FJ, Hofman A, Rosner B, Stampfer MJ, Witteman JC, Breteler MM: Dietary intake of fish and omega-3 fatty acids in relation to long-term dementia risk. Am J Clin Nutr 2009, 90:170-176.
• [251]Kroger E, Verreault R, Carmichael PH, Lindsay J, Julien P, Dewailly E, Ayotte P, Laurin D: Omega-3 fatty acids and risk of dementia: the Canadian study of health and aging. Am J Clin Nutr 2009, 90:184-192.
• [252]van de Rest O, Spiro A 3rd, Krall-Kaye E, Geleijnse JM, de Groot LC, Tucker KL: Intakes of (n-3) fatty acids and fatty fish are not associated with cognitive performance and 6-year cognitive change in men participating in the Veterans affairs normative aging study. J Nutr 2009, 139:2329-2336.
• [253]Vercambre MN, Boutron-Ruault MC, Ritchie K, Clavel-Chapelon F, Berr C: Long-term association of food and nutrient intakes with cognitive and functional decline: a 13-year follow-up study of elderly French women. Br J Nutr 2009, 102:419-427.
• [254]Gonzalez S, Huerta JM, Fernandez S, Patterson AM, Lasheras C: The relationship between dietary lipids and cognitive performance in an elderly population. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2010, 61:217-225.
• [255]Muldoon MF, Ryan CM, Sheu L, Yao JK, Conklin SM, Manuck SB: Serum phospholipid docosahexaenonic acid is associated with cognitive functioning during middle adulthood. J Nutr 2010, 140:848-853.
• [256]Gao Q, Niti M, Feng L, Yap KB, Ng TP: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplements and cognitive decline: Singapore longitudinal aging studies. J Nutr Health Aging 2011, 15:32-35.
• [257]Kesse-Guyot E, Peneau S, Ferry M, Jeandel C, Hercberg S, Galan P: Thirteen-year prospective study between fish consumption, long-chain n-3 fatty acids intakes and cognitive function. J Nutr Health Aging 2011, 15:115-120.
• [258]Samieri C, Feart C, Proust-Lima C, Peuchant E, Dartigues JF, Amieva H, Barberger-Gateau P: omega-3 fatty acids and cognitive decline: modulation by ApoEepsilon4 allele and depression. Neurobiol Aging 2011, 32:2317. e2313-2322
• [259]Thomson TM: Endnote X3. Philadelphia, PA: Thomson Reuters; 2010.
• [260]Petitti DB: Statistical methods in meat-analysis. In Meta-analysis. Decision Analysis, and cost-effectiveness analysis. 2000 edition. Edited by Petitti DB. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2000.
• [261]Hildebrandt M, Bender R, Gehrmann U, Blettner M: Calculating confidence intervals for impact numbers. BMC Med Res Methodol 2006, 6:32.
• [262]Egger M, Smith GD, Altman DG: Systematic Reviews in heatlh care: Meta-analysis in context. 2nd edition. London. UK: the BMJ Publishing Group; 2001.
• [263]Egger M, Smith GD, Schneider M, Minder C: Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997, 315:629-634.
• [264]Begg CB, Mazumdar M: Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias. Biometrics 1994, 50:1088-1101.
• [265]Egger M, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C, Davey Smith G, Schneider M, Minder C: Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test. BMJ 1997, 315:629-634.
• [266]STATA: Statistics/Data Analysis: Release 11.0. In Book Statistics/Data Analysis: Release 11.0. Edited by Editor ed. City: Stata Corporation; 2009.
• [267]Albert MS: How does education affect cognitive function? Ann Epidemiol 1995, 5:76-78.
• [268]Wilson RS, Bennett DA, Beckett LA, Morris MC, Gilley DW, Bienias JL, Scherr PA, Evans DA: Cognitive activity in older persons from a geographically defined population. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 1999, 54:P155-160.
• [269]Gorelick PB, Sacco RL, Smith DB, Alberts M, Mustone-Alexander L, Rader D, Ross JL, Raps E, Ozer MN, Brass LM, Malone ME, Goldberg S, Booss J, Hanley DF, Toole JF, Greengold NL, Rhew DC: Prevention of a first stroke: a review of guidelines and a multidisciplinary consensus statement from the National Stroke Association. JAMA 1999, 281:1112-1120.
• [270]Markesbery WR, Carney JM: Oxidative alterations in Alzheimer's disease. Brain Pathol 1999, 9:133-146.
• [271]Kellar KJ, Wonnacott S (Eds): Nicotinic cholinergic receptors in Alzheimer's disease, in nicotine psychopharmacology: molecular, cellular, and behavioral aspects. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1990.
• [272]Nordberg A: Biological markers and the cholinergic hypothesis in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 1992, 139:54-58.
• [273]Letenneur L, Larrieu S, Barberger-Gateau P: Alcohol and tobacco consumption as risk factors of dementia: a review of epidemiological studies. Biomed Pharmacother 2004, 58:95-99.
• [274]Rogers RL, Meyer JS, Mortel KF: After reaching retirement age physical activity sustains cerebral perfusion and cognition. J Am Geriatr Soc 1990, 38:123-128.
• [275]Dustman RE, Ruhling RO, Russell EM, Shearer DE, Bonekat HW, Shigeoka JW, Wood JS, Bradford DC: Aerobic exercise training and improved neuropsychological function of older individuals. Neurobiol Aging 1984, 5:35-42.
• [276]Spirduso WW: Physical fitness, aging, and psychomotor speed: a review. J Gerontol 1980, 35:850-865.
• [277]Gomez-Pinilla F, Dao L, So V: Physical exercise induces FGF-2 and its mRNA in the hippocampus. Brain Res 1997, 764:1-8.
• [278]Cotman CW, Engesser-Cesar C: Exercise enhances and protects brain function. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2002, 30:75-79.
• [279]Pignatti F, Rozzini R, Trabucchi M: Physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly persons. Arch Intern Med 2002, 162:361-362.
• [280]James JE: Caffeine & health. London, England: Academic; 1991.
• [281]Battig K, Buzzi R: Effect of coffee on the speed of subject-paced information processing. Neuropsychobiology 1986, 16:126-130.
• [282]Riedel W, Hogervorst E, Leboux R, Verhey F, van Praag H, Jolles J: Caffeine attenuates scopolamine-induced memory impairment in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1995, 122:158-168.
• [283]Behl C: Amyloid beta-protein toxicity and oxidative stress in Alzheimer's disease. Cell Tissue Res 1997, 290:471-480.
• [284]Christen Y: Oxidative stress and Alzheimer disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 71:621S-629S.
• [285]Grundman M: Vitamin E and Alzheimer disease: the basis for additional clinical trials. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 71:630S-636S.
• [286]Refsum H, Ueland PM, Nygard O, Vollset SE: Homocysteine and cardiovascular disease. Annu Rev Med 1998, 49:31-62.
• [287]Garcia A, Haron Y, Pulman K, Hua L, Freedman M: Increases in homocysteine are related to worsening of stroop scores in healthy elderly persons: a prospective follow-up study. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2004, 59:1323-1327.
• [288]Teunissen CE, Blom AH, Van Boxtel MP, Bosma H, de Bruijn C, Jolles J, Wauters BA, Steinbusch HW, de Vente J: Homocysteine: a marker for cognitive performance? A longitudinal follow-up study. J Nutr Health Aging 2003, 7:153-159.
• [289]Scott TM, Tucker KL, Bhadelia A, Benjamin B, Patz S, Bhadelia R, Liebson E, Price LL, Griffith J, Rosenberg I, Folstein MF: Homocysteine and B vitamins relate to brain volume and white-matter changes in geriatric patients with psychiatric disorders. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2004, 12:631-638.
• [290]Dufouil C, Alperovitch A, Ducros V, Tzourio C: Homocysteine, white matter hyperintensities, and cognition in healthy elderly people. Ann Neurol 2003, 53:214-221.
• [291]Sachdev PS, Valenzuela M, Wang XL, Looi JC, Brodaty H: Relationship between plasma homocysteine levels and brain atrophy in healthy elderly individuals. Neurology 2002, 58:1539-1541.
• [292]Bleich S, Kornhuber J: Relationship between plasma homocysteine levels and brain atrophy in healthy elderly individuals. Neurology 2003, 60:1220. author reply 1220
• [293]den Heijer T, Vermeer SE, Clarke R, Oudkerk M, Koudstaal PJ, Hofman A, Breteler MM: Homocysteine and brain atrophy on MRI of non-demented elderly. Brain 2003, 126:170-175.
• [294]Bottiglieri T: Homocysteine and folate metabolism in depression. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2005, 29:1103-1112.
• [295]Selhub J, Jacques PF, Wilson PW, Rush D, Rosenberg IH: Vitamin status and intake as primary determinants of homocysteinemia in an elderly population. JAMA 1993, 270:2693-2698.
• [296]Li L, Cao D, Desmond R, Rahman A, Lah JJ, Levey AI, Zamrini E: Cognitive performance and plasma levels of homocysteine, vitamin B12, folate and lipids in patients with Alzheimer disease. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2008, 26:384-390.
• [297]Vidal JS, Dufouil C, Ducros V, Tzourio C: Homocysteine, folate and cognition in a large community-based sample of elderly people–the 3C Dijon Study. Neuroepidemiology 2008, 30:207-214.
• [298]Kruman II, Culmsee C, Chan SL, Kruman Y, Guo Z, Penix L, Mattson MP: Homocysteine elicits a DNA damage response in neurons that promotes apoptosis and hypersensitivity to excitotoxicity. J Neurosci 2000, 20:6920-6926.
• [299]Parsons RB, Waring RH, Ramsden DB, Williams AC: In vitro effect of the cysteine metabolites homocysteic acid, homocysteine and cysteic acid upon human neuronal cell lines. Neurotoxicology 1998, 19:599-603.
• [300]Arab L: Biomarkers of fat and fatty acid intake. J Nutr 2003, 133(Suppl 3):925S-932S.
• [301]Andreassi M, Forleo P, Di Lorio A, Masci S, Abate G, Amerio P: Efficacy of gamma-linolenic acid in the treatment of patients with atopic dermatitis. J Int Med Res 1997, 25:266-274.
• [302]Cerolini S, Kelso KA, Noble RC, Speake BK, Pizzi F, Cavalchini LG: Relationship between spermatozoan lipid composition and fertility during aging of chickens. Biol Reprod 1997, 57:976-980.
• [303]Zhang L: The effects of essential fatty acids preparation in the treatment of intrauterine growth retardation. Am J Perinatol 1997, 14:535-537.
• [304]Bjerve KS: Omega 3 fatty acid deficiency in man: implications for the requirement of alpha-linolenic acid and long-chain omega 3 fatty acids. World Rev Nutr Diet 1991, 66:133-142.
• [305]Wainwright PE: Dietary essential fatty acids and brain function: a developmental perspective on mechanisms. Proc Nutr Soc 2002, 61:61-69.
• [306]Haag M: Essential fatty acids and the brain. Can J Psychiatry 2003, 48:195-203.
• [307]de Wilde MC, Hogyes E, Kiliaan AJ, Farkas T, Luiten PG, Farkas E: Dietary fatty acids alter blood pressure, behavior and brain membrane composition of hypertensive rats. Brain Res 2003, 988:9-19.