FRELIMO). In the 1960s, prior to the independence, FRELIMO established Pilot Centers structured as groups of schools covering both the community and the provincial levels. In the Pilot Centers, teachers engaged in farming for community production, and gathered and discussed the political, social, and military issues for independence as well as the pedagogical issues. In the mid-1970s, after the independence, OPAE was established. All personnel in a school (students, teachers, and school staff) organized into groups by subject and dedicated themselves to various aspects of school life including school-community administration and work-study. Due to the influence of the political ideology of Marxism-Leninism, the schools showed political and administrative characteristics. These historical practices did not utilize the exact term ;;ZIPs’ at the time of their implementation. Nevertheless, their various characteristics overlap with ZIPs in practice today. Although the government of Mozambique nominated ZIPs as a pedagogical system for in-service teacher training when introducing the system in the 1990s, ZIPs in practice have functioned as an administrative office at community level, performing various roles such as managing, monitoring and supervising schools and teachers, submitting administrative reports to the education district office, distributing budget, and so on. Although the government of Mozambique utilized the term ;;revitalization” when introducing ZIPs in its education policy, there was no clear consensus about which characteristics should be reflected in ZIPs in order to overcome the chronic problems. Besides, it seems that there was no clear definition of the term ;;pedagogical’. In other words, even as the historical process formed the foundation of today’s ZIPs, it also brought a conceptual confusion to the system. Therefore, the influences of the historical prototypes are concluded as follows.First, the roles and functions of ZIPs are unclear because of the stakeholders’ different understandings. While the government officially designated ZIPs as a pedagogical system for in-service teacher training, it has played various other roles beyond the pedagogical. Second, the position of ZIPs is unclear, somewhere between the education district office and the schools. Under the decentralized system, ZIPs are required to function as an administrative unit, even though it is not authorized and there are no designated offices for them. Besides, they do not receive any support, finances or human resources from the national or local government, nor are they given any autonomous capacity. Nevertheless, ZIPs are pedagogically meaningful as an in-service teacher training system for improving the quality of education up to the international standards. Therefore, the national implementation of ZIPs has important implications for the international community trying to raise the quality of education by training qualified teachers in developing countries.
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A Study of Zones of Pedagogical Influence (ZIPs) in Mozambique
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