Phosphorus (P) is one of the essential nutrients for living organisms; however, excess P in aquatic systems often causes environmental and ecological problems including eutrophication. Removal of P from domestic wastewater, industrial wastewater, and agricultural organic-waste systems is required to minimize loading of P to receiving water bodies.A variety of sorbents or filter materials have previously been evaluated for P removal, including natural materials, industrial byproducts, and synthetic products. Among these materials industrial byproducts were reported as most effective. However, only a few of these studies were based on field experiments. Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) and acesulfame-K (an artificial sweetener) are emerging contaminants observed in wastewater. The removal of PhACs in conventional wastewater treatment systems has been studied; however, few studies on alternative treatment systems are available. Studies related to the removal of acesulfame-K are even more limited. This thesis was focused on evaluation of basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS), a byproduct from the steel manufacturing industry, as a potential reactive media for P removal from surface water and wastewater. The removal of PhACs and acesulfame-K in wastewater treatment systems containing BOFS as a treatment component was also evaluated. The effectiveness of BOFS for removing P from lake water was evaluated in a three year pilot-scale hypolimnetic withdrawal P treatment system at Lake Wilcox, Richmond Hill, Ontario. Phosphate concentrations of the hypolimnion water ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 mg L-1. About 83-100% P was removed during the experiment.The reactive mixtures were changed each year to improve the performance of the treatment system. Elevated pH (9-12) at the effluent of the treatment system was adjusted by sparging CO2(g) to near neutral pH. Elevated Al was removed through this pH adjustment.Elevated concentrations of V were removed in a column containing 5 wt% zero valent iron (ZVI) mixed with sand (0.5 m3) at the end of the BOFS based column. Removal of P in the BOFS based media is attributed to adsorption and co-precipitation at the outer layer of BOFS. Geochemical modeling results showed supersaturation with respect to hydroxyapatite, ß-tricalciumphosphate, aragonite, and calcite. Solid phase analyzes of the BOFS based reactive media collected after completion of the year 2 experiment (spent media) through combination of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy (XANES) support the presence of calcium phosphate minerals on the outer layer of the spent media. A multistep wastewater treatment experiment was carried out in an indoor facility at the Center for Alternative Wastewater Treatment, Fleming College, Lindsay, Ontario, Canada. This experiment evaluated the removal of P, ammonia, cBOD5, COD, E. coli, total coliform, and trace metals in a series of treatment cells including a mixing cell, a vertical subsurface flow aerobic cell, a vertical subsurface flow P treatment cell containing BOFS, and a horizontal subsurface flow anaerobic cell. About 97-99% removal of P, NH3, cBOD5, E. coli, and total coliform; and ~72% removal of COD were achieved in the treatment system. The mixing cell and the aerated cell reduced the concentrations of P, ammonia, cBOD5, E. coli, and total coliform significantly and the P treatment cell provided additional treatment. However, the primary objective of the P treatment cell was to reduce P concentrations to the acceptable range according to the water quality guidelines. The P treatment cell had successfully fulfilled this objective. Elevated concentration of Al and V were also observed in the P treatment cell effluent. The concentration of Al decreased to below the guideline value of 0.075 mg L-1 after introducing a pH adjustment unit between the P treatment cell and the anaerobic cell. The concentration of V was decreased in the anaerobic cell effluent. However, the effluent concentration of V was much higher than the guideline value. Geochemical speciation modeling results showed supersaturation with respect to hydroxyapatite, ß-tricalciumphosphate, aragonite and calcite along the flow path. Accumulation of P on the outer layer of the spent BOFS media was identified by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Although X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) can provide information to a depth of 5-7 nm from the outer layer of the spent media, both Ca and P were positively identified in some of the samples. Accumulation of P at the edge of the grains of the spent media was clearly identified on the element map of polished cross-sections and corresponding FTIR spectra. The phosphate and carbonate functional groups were identified by the distribution of different vibrational frequencies through FTIR spectroscopy. The presence of calcite and hydroxyapatite were inferred based on the wave numbers assigned for these minerals in the literature. Finally, X-ray absorption near edge structure spectroscopy (XANES) on the outer layer samples from the spent BOFS media and corresponding linear combination fitting analysis indicated the presence of ß-tricalciumphosphate, hydroxyapatite, and calcium phosphate dibasic.Based on the observations from the indoor wastewater treatment experiment, a multistep demonstration-scale outdoor wastewater treatment experiment was conducted to investigate the applicability of the integration of the P treatment technology and engineered wetland technology at a relatively large scale prior to a full-scale field installation. The anaerobic treatment cell was not included in this outdoor system because this unit did not efficiently remove ammonia and metals (e.g. V) from the Cell 4 effluent in the indoor system. A 10 cm layer of zero valent iron was placed at the bottom part of the down flowing P treatment cell to address the elevated V in the P treatment cell effluent observed in the indoor system and also to treat PhACs in the effluent. More than 99% removal of P, E. coli, and total coliform; >82, >98, and >76% removal of ammonia, cBOD5, and COD were achieved in this treatment system. The effluent pH (10.88±1.47) was neutralized and the concentration of V remained < 0.006 mg L-1. The Al concentration was adjusted to <0.075 mg L-1 with the neutralization of pH. Geochemical speciation modeling results showed the supersaturation of hydroxyapatite, ß-tricalciumphosphate, octatricalciumphosphate, aragonite, and calcite.The FTIR and XANES spectra showed the presence of calcium phosphate minerals on the outer layer of the spent media.Removal of the PhACs, including caffeine, ibuprofen, carbamazepine, naproxen, and sulfamethoxazole, and acesulfame-K was monitored in the demonstration-scale outdoor wastewater treatment system, which consisted of five different treatment cells including a horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetland, a vertical subsurface flow aerated cell, a vertical subsurface flow BOFS cell, and a pH neutralization unit. Significant removal of caffeine (>75%) and ibuprofen (50-75%), and moderate removal of sulfamethoxazole and naproxen (25-50%) were observed.The removal of carbamazepine was less effective with <25% removal observed. Acesulfame-K was also persistent along the flow path with <25% removal.This study demonstrated that removal of P from lake water and wastewater in excess of 95% could be achieved using BOFS as a reactive media. Integration of this media into an engineered wetland system enhances its performance in removing nutrients and other wastewater contaminants.
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Treatment of Water-borne Nutrients, Pathogens, and Pharmaceutical Compounds using Basic Oxygen Furnace Slag
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