期刊论文详细信息
GMS German Medical Science — an Interdisciplinary Journal
Prevention, diagnosis, therapy and follow-up care of sepsis: 1st revision of S-2k guidelines of the German Sepsis Society (Deutsche Sepsis-Gesellschaft e.V. (DSG)) and the German Interdisciplinary Association of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine (Deutsche Interdisziplinäre Vereinigung für Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin (DIVI))
T. Welte2  K. Werdan1,15  A. Weimann2,26  N. Weiler6  F. Stüber2,27  C. Spies2,23  H. Seifert1  R. Rossaint1,14  M. Ragaller4  M. Quintel3  C. Putensen8  M. Oppert1,10  A. Meier-Hellmann1,18  K. Mayer2,28  J. Martin2,22  G. Marggraf2,24  P. Kujath1,11  W. Krüger2,20  G. Kreymann1,16  W. Kern1,17  S. John1,19  M. Gründling1,12  H. Gerlach2,29  P. Gastmeier2,25  H. Forst9  C.-E. Dempfle2,21  J. Bardutzky1,13  H.-G. Bone5  F. M. Brunkhorst7  K. Reinhart7 
[1] Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene, Hospital at the University of Köln, Germany;Department of Pneumology, Medical University Hannover, Germany;Anesthesiology, Rescue and Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital Göttingen, Germany;Clinic for Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Therapy, University Hospital Carl Gustav Carus, Technical University Dresden, Germany;Clinic for Anesthesiology and Operative Intensive Care Medicine, Knappschaftshospital Recklinghausen, Germany;Clinic for Anesthesiology and Operative Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital SchleswigHolstein, Campus Kiel, Germany;University Hospital Jena, Clinic for Anaesthesiology and Intensive Care Therapy, Jena, Germany;Clinic and Policlinic for Anesthesiology and Operative Intensive Care Medicine, Rheinische FriedrichWilhelmsUniversität Bonn, Germany;Clinic for Anesthesiology and Operative Intensive Care Medicine, Hospital Augsburg, Germany;Clinic for Nephrology and Internal Intensive Care Medicine, Charité University Medicine, Berlin, Germany;Clinic for Surgery, University Hospital SchleswigHolstein, Campus Lübeck, Germany;Clinic for Anaesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, ErnstMoritzArndtUniversity Greifswald, Germany;Clinic for Neurology, University Hospital Erlangen, Germany;Clinic for Anesthesiology, University Hospital, RheinischWestfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen, Germany;Clinic and Policlinic for Internal Medicine III, Hospital of the Medical Faculty, MartinLutherUniversity HalleWittenberg, Germany;Clinic and Policlinic for Intensive Care Medicine, University Hospital HamburgEppendorf, Germany;Institute for Infectology, University Hospital Freiburg, Germany;Clinic for Anesthesia, Intensive Care Medicine and Pain Therapy, HELIOS Hospital Erfurt GmbH, Germany;Clinic for Medicine 4, University ErlangenNürnberg, Germany;Clinic for Anaesthesiology and Operative Intensive Care Medicine, Hospital Konstanz, Germany;I. Clinic for Medicine, University Hospital Mannheim, Germany;Clinic for Anaesthesiology, Klinik am Eichert, Göppingen, Germany;Clinic for Anesthesiology and Operative Intensive Care Medicine, Charité University Medicine, Berlin, Germany;Clinic for Thorax and Cardivascular Surgery, University Hospital Essen, Germany;Institute for Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, Charité University Medicine, Berlin, Germany;Clinic for General and Visceral Surgery, Hospital St. Georg gGmbH Leipzig, Germany;University Hospital for Anesthesiology and Pain Therapy, Inselspital Bern, Switzerland;Clinic of Medicine II, JustusLiebigUniversity Gießen, Germany;Clinic for Anaesthesia and Operative Intensive Care Medicine, Vivantes Hospital Neukölln, Berlin, Germany
关键词: follow-up care;    treatment;    diagnosis;    prevention;    septic shock;    severe sepsis;    German Sepsis Aid;    German Sepsis Society;    guideline;   
Others  :  869179
实施日期:2010-04-21,发布日期:2010-06-28
PDF
【 摘 要 】

Practice guidelines are systematically developed statements and recommendations that assist the physicians and patients in making decisions about appropriate health care measures for specific clinical circumstances taking into account specific national health care structures. The 1st revision of the S-2k guideline of the German Sepsis Society in collaboration with 17 German medical scientific societies and one self-help group provides state-of-the-art information (results of controlled clinical trials and expert knowledge) on the effective and appropriate medical care (prevention, diagnosis, therapy and follow-up care) of critically ill patients with severe sepsis or septic shock. The guideline had been developed according to the “German Instrument for Methodological Guideline Appraisal” of the Association of the Scientific Medical Societies (AWMF). In view of the inevitable advancements in scientific knowledge and technical expertise, revisions, updates and amendments must be periodically initiated. The guideline recommendations may not be applied under all circumstances. It rests with the clinician to decide whether a certain recommendation should be adopted or not, taking into consideration the unique set of clinical facts presented in connection with each individual patient as well as the available resources.

【 授权许可】

   
© 2010 Reinhart et al.This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/deed.en). You are free: to Share – to copy, distribute and transmit the work, provided the original author and source are credited.

【 预 览 】
附件列表
Files Size Format View
20140729194255647.pdf 4685KB PDF download
【 参考文献 】
  • [1]Yusuf S, Teo K, Woods K. Intravenous magnesium in acute myocardial infarction: An effective, safe, simple, and inexpensive intervention. Circulation. 1993;87(6):2043-6.
  • [2]ISIS-4 (Fourth International Study of Infarct Survival) Collaborative Group. ISIS-4:a randomised factorial trial assessing early oral captopril, oral mononitrate, and intravenous magnesium sulphate in 58,050 patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction. Lancet. 1995;345(8951):669-85. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(95)90865-X 
  • [3]Sackett DL. Rules of evidence and clinical recommendations on the use of antithrombotic agents. Chest. 1989;95(2 Suppl):2S-4S.
  • [4]Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(16):1546-54. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa022139 
  • [5]Bates DW, Cook EF, Goldman L, Lee TH. Predicting bacteremia in hospitalized patients: A prospectively validated model. Ann Intern Med. 1990;113(7):495-500.
  • [6]Bates DW, Sands K, Miller E, Lanken PN, Hibberd PL, Graman PS, Schwartz JS, Kahn K, Snydman DR, Parsonnet J, Moore R, Black E, Johnson BL, Jha A, Platt R; Academic Medical Center Consortium Sepsis Project Working Group. Predicting bacteremia in patients with sepsis syndrome. J Infect Dis. 1997;176(6):1538-51. DOI: 10.1086/514153 
  • [7]Crowe M, Ispahani P, Humphreys H, Kelley T, Winter R. Bacteraemia in the adult intensive care unit of a teaching hospital in Nottingham, UK, 1985-1996. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 1998;17(6):377-84.
  • [8]Leibovici L, Greenshtain S, Cohen O, Mor F, Wysenbeek AJ. Bacteremia in febrile patients: A clinical model for diagnosis. Arch Intern Med. 1991;151(9):1801-6.
  • [9]Vincent JL, Bihari DJ, Suter PM, Bruining HA, White J, Nicolas-Chanoin MH, Wolff M, Spencer RC, Hemmer M; EPIC International Advisory Committee. The prevalence of nosocomial infection in intensive care units in Europe: Results of the European Prevalence of Infection in Intensive Care (EPIC) Study. Jama. 1995;274(8):639-44.
  • [10]Alberti C, Brun-Buisson C, Burchardi H, Martin C, Goodman S, Artigas A, Sicignano A, Palazzo M, Moreno R, Boulmé R, Lepage E, Le Gall R. Epidemiology of sepsis and infection in ICU patients from an international multicentre cohort study. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(2):108-21. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-001-1143-z 
  • [11]American College of Chest Physicians; Society of Critical Care Medicine Consensus Conference. Definition for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1992;20(6):864-74.
  • [12]Garner JS, Jarvis WR, Emori TG, Horan TC, Hughes JM. CDC definitions for nosocomial infections. In: Olmsted RN, editor. PIC Infection Control and Applied Epidemiology: Principles and Practice. St. Louis: Mosby, 1996. p. A1-A20.
  • [13]Clec'h C, Ferriere F, Karoubi P, Fosse JP, Cupa M, Hoang P, Cohen Y. Diagnostic and prognostic value of procalcitonin in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(5):1166-9. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000126263.00551.06 
  • [14]Harbarth S, Holeckova K, Froidevaux C, Pittet D, Ricou B, Grau GE, Vadas L, Pugin J; Geneva Sepsis Network. Diagnostic value of procalcitonin, interleukin-6, and interleukin-8 in critically ill patients admitted with suspected sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164(3):396-402.
  • [15]Müller B, Becker KL, Schächinger H, Rickenbacher PR, Huber PR, Zimmerli W, Ritz R. Calcitonin precursors are reliable markers of sepsis in a medical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(4):977-83. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200004000-00011 
  • [16]Brunkhorst FM, Wegscheider K, Forycki ZF, Brunkhorst R. Procalcitonin for early diagnosis and differentiation of SIRS, sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26(Suppl. 2):S148-S152. DOI: 10.1007/s001340051134 
  • [17]Meisner M, Tschaikowsky K, Hutzler A, Schick C, Schüttler J. Postoperative plasma concentrations of procalcitonin after different types of surgery. Intensive Care Med. 1998;24(7):680-4. DOI: 10.1007/s001340050644 
  • [18]Nobre V, Harbarth S, Graf JD, Rohner P, Pugin J. Use of procalcitonin to shorten antibiotic treatment duration in septic patients: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177(5):498-505. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200708-1238OC 
  • [19]Smith-Elekes S, Weinstein MP. Blood cultures. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 1993;7(2):221-34.
  • [20]Dandona P, Nix D, Wilson MF, Aljada A, Love J, Assicot M, Bohuon C. Procalcitonin increase after endotoxin injection in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79(6):1605-8. DOI: 10.1210/jc.79.6.1605 
  • [21]Reimer LG, Wilson ML, Weinstein MP. Update on detection of bacteremia and fungemia. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1997;10(3):444-65.
  • [22]Dellinger RP, Carlet J, Masur H, Gerlach H, Calandra T, Cohen J, Gea-Banacloche J, Keh D, Marshall JC, Parker MM, Ramsay G, Zimmerman JL, Vincent JL, Levy MM; Surviving Sepsis Campaign Management Guidelines Committee. Surviving Sepsis Campaign for management of severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(3):858-73. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000117317.18092.E4 
  • [23]Shafazand S, Weinacker AB. Blood cultures in the critical care unit: improving utilization and yield. Chest. 2002;122(5):1727-36. DOI: 10.1378/chest.122.5.1727 
  • [24]Darby JM, Linden P, Pasculle W, Saul M. Utilization and diagnostic yield of blood cultures in a surgical intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 1997;25(6):989-94. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199706000-00016 
  • [25]Shahar E, Wohl-Gottesman BS, Shenkman L. Contamination of blood cultures during venepuncture: fact or myth? Postgrad Med J. 1990;66(782):1053-8. DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.66.782.1053 
  • [26]Souvenir D, Anderson DE Jr, Palpant S, Mroch H, Askin S, Anderson J, Claridge J, Eiland J, Malone C, Garrison MW, Watson P, Campbell DM. Blood cultures positive for coagulase-negative staphylococci: antisepsis, pseudobacteremia, and therapy of patients. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36(7):1923-6.
  • [27]Martinez JA, DesJardin JA, Aronoff M, Supran S, Nasraway SA, Snydman DR. Clinical utility of blood cultures drawn from central venous or arterial catheters in critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care Med. 2002;30(1):7-13. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200201000-00002 
  • [28]Wilson ML. General principles of specimen collection and transport. Clin Infect Dis. 1996;22(5):766-77.
  • [29]Spitalnic SJ, Woolard RH, Mermel LA. The significance of changing needles when inoculating blood cultures: a meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;21(5):1103-6.
  • [30]Weinstein MP, Towns ML, Quartey SM, Mirrett S, Reimer LG, Parmigiani G, Reller LB. The clinical significance of positive blood cultures in the 1990s: a prospective comprehensive evaluation of the microbiology, epidemiology, and outcome of bacteremia and fungemia in adults. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24(4):584-602.
  • [31]Washington JA 2nd. Blood cultures: principles and techniques. Mayo Clin Proc. 1975;50(2):91-8.
  • [32]Li J, Plorde JJ, Carlson LG. Effects of volume and periodicity on blood cultures. J Clin Microbiol. 1994;32(11):2829-31.
  • [33]Seifert H, Abele-Horn M, Fätkenheuer G, Glück T, Jansen B, Kern WV, Mack D, Plum G, Reinert RR, Roos R, Salzberger B, Shah PM, Ullmann U, Weiß M, Welte T, Wisplinghoff H. MiQ 3a: Blutkulturdiagnostik Sepsis, Endokarditis, Katheterinfektionen, Teil I. München: Urban & Fischer; 2007. Available from: http://www.dgho-infektionen.de/agiho/content/e2735/e15963/e15977/index_ger.html 
  • [34]Bloos F, Hinder F, Becker K, Sachse S, Mekontso Dessap A, Straube E, Cattoir V, Brun-Buisson C, Reinhart K, Peters G, Bauer M. A multicenter trial to compare blood culture with polymerase chain reaction in severe human sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2010;36(2):241-7. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-009-1705-z 
  • [35]Lehmann LE, Alvarez J, Hunfeld KP, Goglio A, Kost GJ, Louie RF, Raglio A, Regueiro BJ, Wissing H, Stüber F. Potential clinical utility of polymerase chain reaction in microbiological testing for sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(12):3085-90. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181b033d7 
  • [36]Louie RF, Tang Z, Albertson TE, Cohen S, Tran NK, Kost GJ. Multiplex polymerase chain reaction detection enhancement of bacteremia and fungemia. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(5):1487-92. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31816f487c 
  • [37]Schrenzel J. Clinical relevance of new diagnostic methods for bloodstream infections. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2007;30(Suppl 1):S2-6. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2007.06.030 
  • [38]American Thoracic Society; Infectious Diseases Society. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospital-acquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;171(4):388-416. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200405-644ST 
  • [39]Hoffken G, Lorenz J, Kern W, Welte T, Bauer T, Dalhoff K, Dietrich E, Ewig S, Gastmeier P, Grabein B, Halle E, Kolditz M, Marre R, Sitter H. S3-Leitlinie zu ambulant erworbener Pneumonie und tiefen Atemwegsinfektionen [S3-guideline on ambulant acquired pneumonia and deep airway infections]. Pneumologie. 2005;59(9):612-64.
  • [40]Langer M, Cigada M, Mandelli M, Mosconi P, Tognoni G. Early onset pneumonia: a multicenter study in intensive care units. Intensive Care Med. 1987;13(5):342-6. DOI: 10.1007/BF00255791 
  • [41]Gastmeier P, Sohr D, Geffers C, Ruden H, Vonberg RP, Welte T. Early- and late-onset pneumonia: is this still a useful classification? Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53(7):2714-8. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.01070-08 
  • [42]Wunderink RG. Clinical criteria in the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2000;117(4 Suppl 2):191S-194S. DOI: 10.1378/chest.117.4_suppl_2.191S 
  • [43]Singh N, Rogers P, Atwood CW, Wagener MM, Yu VL. Short-course empiric antibiotic therapy for patients with pulmonary infiltrates in the intensive care unit. A proposed solution for indiscriminate antibiotic prescription. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(2 Pt 1):505-11.
  • [44]Fartoukh M, Maitre B, Honore S, Cerf C, Zahar JR, Brun-Buisson C. Diagnosing pneumonia during mechanical ventilation: the clinical pulmonary infection score revisited. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168(2):173-9. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200212-1449OC 
  • [45]Ramirez P, Garcia MA, Ferrer M, Aznar J, Valencia M, Sahuquillo JM, Menéndez R, Asenjo MA, Torres A. Sequential measurements of procalcitonin levels in diagnosing ventilator-associated pneumonia. Eur Respir J. 2008;31(2):356-62. DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00086707 
  • [46]Michel F, Franceschini B, Berger P, Arnal JM, Gainnier M, Sainty JM, Papazian L. Early antibiotic treatment for BAL-confirmed ventilator-associated pneumonia: a role for routine endotracheal aspirate cultures. Chest. 2005;127(2):589-97. DOI: 10.1378/chest.127.2.589 
  • [47]Luyt CE, Chastre J, Fagon JY; VAP Trial Group. Value of the clinical pulmonary infection score for the identification and management of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30(5):844-52. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-003-2125-0 
  • [48]Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. A randomized trial of diagnostic techniques for ventilator-associated pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(25):2619-30. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa052904 
  • [49]Torres A, El-Ebiary M. Bronchoscopic BAL in the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2000;117(4 Suppl 2):198S-202S. DOI: 10.1378/chest.117.4_suppl_2.198S 
  • [50]Cook D, Mandell L. Endotracheal aspiration in the diagnosis of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Chest. 2000;117(4 Suppl 2):195S-197S. DOI: 10.1378/chest.117.4_suppl_2.195S 
  • [51]Mauch H, Wagner J. Heft 7: Infektionen der tiefen Atemwege, Teil 1. In: Podbielski A, Herrmann M, Kniehl E, Mauch H, editors. MIQ – Qualitätsstandards in der mikrobiologisch-infektiologischen Diagnostik. München: Urban & Fischer; 1999.
  • [52]Gerbeaux P, Ledoray V, Boussuges A, Molenat F, Jean P, Sainty JM. Diagnosis of nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: repeatability of the bronchoalveolar lavage. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157(1):76-80.
  • [53]Llewelyn M, Cohen J. Diagnosis of infection in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27 Suppl 1:S10-32.
  • [54]Carratala J, Gudiol F, Pallares R, Dorca J, Verdaguer R, Ariza J, Manresa F. Risk factors for nosocomial Legionella pneumophila pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149(3 Pt 1):625-9.
  • [55]Dobbins BM, Kite P, Wilcox MH. Diagnosis of central venous catheter related sepsis – a critical look inside. J Clin Pathol. 1999;52(3):165-72. DOI: 10.1136/jcp.52.3.165 
  • [56]Sherertz RJ. Surveillance for infections associated with vascular catheters. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1996;17(11):746-52. DOI: 10.1086/647222 
  • [57]Blot F, Nitenberg G, Chachaty E, Raynard B, Germann N, Antoun S, Laplanche A, Brun-Buisson C, Tancrède C. Diagnosis of catheter-related bacteraemia: a prospective comparison of the time to positivity of hub-blood versus peripheral-blood cultures. Lancet. 1999;354(9184):1071-7. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)11134-0 
  • [58]Tanguy M, Seguin P, Laviolle B, Desbordes L, Malledant Y. Hub qualitative blood culture is useful for diagnosis of catheter-related infections in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31(5):645-8. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-005-2600-x 
  • [59]Catton JA, Dobbins BM, Kite P, Wood JM, Eastwood K, Sugden S, Sandoe JA, Burke D, McMahon MJ, Wilcox MH. In situ diagnosis of intravascular catheter-related bloodstream infection: a comparison of quantitative culture, differential time to positivity, and endoluminal brushing. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(4):787-91. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000157968.98476.F3 
  • [60]Raad II, Baba M, Bodey GP. Diagnosis of catheter-related infections: the role of surveillance and targeted quantitative skin cultures. Clin Infect Dis. 1995;20(3):593-7.
  • [61]Cobb DK, High KP, Sawyer RG, Sable CA, Adams RB, Lindley DA, Pruett TL, Schwenzer KJ, Farr BM. A controlled trial of scheduled replacement of central venous and pulmonary-artery catheters. N Engl J Med. 1992;327(15):1062-8.
  • [62]Cook D, Randolph A, Kernerman P, Cupido C, King D, Soukup C, Brun-Buisson C. Central venous catheter replacement strategies: a systematic review of the literature. Crit Care Med. 1997;25(8):1417-24. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199708000-00033 
  • [63]Eyer S, Brummitt C, Crossley K, Siegel R, Cerra F. Catheter-related sepsis: prospective, randomized study of three methods of long-term catheter maintenance. Crit Care Med. 1990;18(10):1073-9.
  • [64]Brook I, Frazier EH. Aerobic and anaerobic microbiology of retroperitoneal abscesses. Clin Infect Dis. 1998;26(4):938-41. DOI: 10.1086/513947 
  • [65]Nichols RL, Smith JW. Wound and intraabdominal infections: microbiological considerations and approaches to treatment. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;16 Suppl 4:S266-72.
  • [66]Brook I, Frazier EH. Microbiology of subphrenic abscesses: a 14-year experience. Am Surg. 1999;65(11):1049-53.
  • [67]Marshall JC, Innes M. Intensive care unit management of intra-abdominal infection. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(8):2228-37. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000087326.59341.51 
  • [68]Büchner T, Fegeler W, Bernhardt H, Brockmeyer N, Duswald KH, Herrmann M, Heuser D, Jehn U, Just-Nübling G, Karthaus M, Maschmeyer G, Müller FM, Müller J, Ritter J, Roos N, Ruhnke M, Schmalreck A, Schwarze R, Schwesinger G, Silling G; Panel of Interdisciplinary Investigators. Treatment of severe Candida infections in high-risk patients in Germany: consensus formed by a panel of interdisciplinary investigators. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2002;21(5):337-52. DOI: 10.1007/s10096-002-0730-4 
  • [69]Blumberg HM, Jarvis WR, Soucie JM, Edwards JE, Patterson JE, Pfaller MA, Rangel-Frausto MS, Rinaldi MG, Saiman L, Wiblin RT, Wenzel RP; National Epidemiology of Mycoses Survey(NEMIS) Study Group. Risk factors for candidal bloodstream infections in surgical intensive care unit patients: the NEMIS prospective multicenter study. The National Epidemiology of Mycosis Survey. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(2):177-86. DOI: 10.1086/321811 
  • [70]Petri MG, Konig J, Moecke HP, Gramm HJ, Barkow H, Kujath P, Dennhart R, Schäfer H, Meyer N, Kalmar P, Thülig P, Müller J, Lode H; Paul-Ehrlich Society for Chemotherapy, Divisions of Mycology and Pneumonia Research. Epidemiology of invasive mycosis in ICU patients: a prospective multicenter study in 435 non-neutropenic patients. Intensive Care Med. 1997;23(3):317-25. DOI: 10.1007/s001340050334 
  • [71]Pappas PG, Rex JH, Sobel JD, Filler SG, Dismukes WE, Walsh TJ, Edwards JE; Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for treatment of candidiasis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(2):161-89. DOI: 10.1086/380796 
  • [72]Richards M, Thursky K, Buising K. Epidemiology, Prevalence, and Sites of Infections in Intensive Care Units. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;24(1):3-22. DOI: 10.1055/s-2003-37913 
  • [73]Wildemann B. Meningitis. Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr. 2005;73(2):102-17; quiz 118-9. DOI: 10.1055/s-2004-818425 
  • [74]van de Beek D, de Gans J, Spanjaard L, Weisfelt M, Reitsma JB, Vermeulen M. Clinical features and prognostic factors in adults with bacterial meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(18):1849-59. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa040845 
  • [75]Tunkel AR, Hartman BJ, Kaplan SL, Kaufman BA, Roos KL, Scheld WM, Whitley RJ. Practice guidelines for the management of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39(9):1267-84. DOI: 10.1086/425368 
  • [76]Diener HC, Ackermann H. Leitlinien für Diagnostik und Therapie in der Neurologie. Stuttgart: Thieme; 2005.
  • [77]Beckham JD, Tyler KL; IDSA. Initial management of acute bacterial meningitis in adults: summary of IDSA guidelines. Rev Neurol Dis. 2006;3(2):57-60.
  • [78]Hasbun R, Abrahams J, Jekel J, Quagliarello VJ. Computed tomography of the head before lumbar puncture in adults with suspected meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(24):1727-33. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa010399 
  • [79]Begg N, Cartwright KA, Cohen J, Kaczmarski EB, Innes JA, Leen CL, Nathwani D, Singer M, Southgate L, Todd WT, Welsby PD, Wood MJ; British Infection Society Working Party. Consensus statement on diagnosis, investigation, treatment and prevention of acute bacterial meningitis in immunocompetent adults. J Infect. 1999;39(1):1-15. DOI: 10.1016/S0163-4453(99)90095-6 
  • [80]Aronin SI, Peduzzi P, Quagliarello VJ. Community-acquired bacterial meningitis: risk stratification for adverse clinical outcome and effect of antibiotic timing. Ann Intern Med. 1998;129(11):862-9.
  • [81]Dunbar SA, Eason RA, Musher DM, Clarridge JE 3rd. Microscopic examination and broth culture of cerebrospinal fluid in diagnosis of meningitis. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36(6):1617-20.
  • [82]Karandanis D, Shulman JA. Recent survey of infectious meningitis in adults: review of laboratory findings in bacterial, tuberculous, and aseptic meningitis. South Med J. 1976;69(4):449-57.
  • [83]La Scolea LJ Jr, Dryja D. Quantitation of bacteria in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of children with meningitis and its diagnostic significance. J Clin Microbiol. 1984;19(2):187-90. Available from: http://jcm.asm.org/cgi/reprint/19/2/187 
  • [84]Poppert S, Essig A, Stoehr B, Steingruber A, Wirths B, Juretschko S, Reischl U, Wellinghausen N. Rapid diagnosis of bacterial meningitis by real-time PCR and fluorescence in situ hybridization. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;43(7):3390-7. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.43.7.3390-3397.2005 
  • [85]Tarafdar K, Rao S, Recco RA, Zaman MM. Lack of sensitivity of the latex agglutination test to detect bacterial antigen in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with culture-negative meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(3):406-8. DOI: 10.1086/321885 
  • [86]de Gans J, van de Beek D. Dexamethasone in adults with bacterial meningitis. N Engl J Med. 2002;347(20):1549-56. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa021334 
  • [87]van de Beek D, de Gans J, McIntyre P, Prasad K. Steroids in adults with acute bacterial meningitis: a systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis. 2004;4(3):139-43. DOI: 10.1016/S1473-3099(04)00937-5 
  • [88]van de Beek D, de Gans J, McIntyre P, Prasad K. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(1):CD004405. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004405.pub2 
  • [89]Molyneux EM, Walsh AL, Forsyth H, Tembo M, Mwenechanya J, Kayira K, Bwanaisa L, Njobvu A, Rogerson S, Malenga G. Dexamethasone treatment in childhood bacterial meningitis in Malawi: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360(9328):211-8. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(02)09458-8 
  • [90]Scarborough M, Gordon SB, Whitty CJ, French N, Njalale Y, Chitani A, Peto TE, Lalloo DG, Zijlstra EE. Corticosteroids for bacterial meningitis in adults in sub-Saharan Africa. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(24):2441-50. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa065711 
  • [91]Joiner GA, Salisbury D, Bollin GE. Utilizing quality assurance as a tool for reducing the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Am J Med Qual. 1996;11(2):100-3. DOI: 10.1177/0885713X9601100208 
  • [92]Zack JE, Garrison T, Trovillion E, Clinkscale D, Coopersmith CM, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. Effect of an education program aimed at reducing the occurence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2002;30(11):2407-12. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200211000-00001 
  • [93]Salahuddin N, Zafar A, Sukhyani L, Rahim S, Noor MF, Hussain K, Siddiqui S, Islam M, Husain SJ. Reducing ventilator-associated pneumonia rates through a staff education porgramme. J Hosp Infect. 2004;57(3):223-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2004.03.002 
  • [94]Babcock HM, Zack JE, Garrison T, Trovillion E, Jones M, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. An educational intervention to reduce ventilator-associated pneumonia in an integrated health system: a comparison of effects. Chest. 2004;125(6):2224-31. DOI: 10.1378/chest.125.6.2224 
  • [95]Cocanour CS, Peninger M, Domonoske BD, Li T, Wright B, Valdivia A, Luther KM. Decreasing ventilator-associated pneumonia in a trauma ICU. J Trauma. 2006;61(1):122-9. DOI: 10.1097/01.ta.0000223971.25845.b3 
  • [96]Jain M, Miller L, Belt D, King D, Berwick DM. Decline in ICU adverse events, nosocomial infections ans cost through a quality improvemnt initiative focusing on teamwork and culture change. Qual Saf Health Care. 2006;15(4):235-9. DOI: 10.1136/qshc.2005.016576 
  • [97]Warren DK, Zack JE, Cox MJ, Cohen MM, Fraser VJ. An educational intervention to prevent catheter-associated bloodstream infections in a nonteaching, community medical center. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(7):1959-63. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000069513.15417.1C 
  • [98]Warren DK, Zack JE, Mayfield JL, Chen A, Prentice D, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. The effect of an education program on the incidence of central venous catheter-associated bloodstream infection in a medical ICU. Chest. 2004;126(5):1612-8. DOI: 10.1378/chest.126.5.1612 
  • [99]Berenholtz SM, Pronovost PJ, Lipsett PA, Hobson D, Earsing K, Farley JE, Milanovich S, Garrett-Mayer E, Winters BD, Rubin HR, Dorman T, Perl TM. Eliminating catheter-related bloodstream infections in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(10):2014-20. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000142399.70913.2F 
  • [100]Pronovost P, Needham D, Berenholtz S, Sinopoli D, Chu H, Cosgrove S, Sexton B, Hyzy R, Welsh R, Roth G, Bander J, Kepros J, Goeschel C. An intervention to decrease catheter-related bloodstream infections in the ICU. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(26):2725-32. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa061115 
  • [101]Stephan F, Sax H, Wachsmuth M, Hoffmeyer P, Clerque F, Pittet D. Reduction of urinary tract infection and antibiotic use after surgery: A controlled, prospective, before-after intervention study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;42(11):1544-51. DOI: 10.1086/503837 
  • [102]Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC definitions. 2008. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/nhsn.html 
  • [103]Nationales Referenzzentrum für die Surveillance von nosokomialen Infektionen [homepage on the Internet]. Berlin: NRZ; c2005. Available from: http://www.nrz-hygiene.de 
  • [104]Gastmeier P, Geffers C, Brandt C, Zuschneid I, Sohr D, Schwab F, Behnke M, Daschner F, Rüden H. Effectiveness of a nationwide nosocomial infection surveillance system for reducing nosocomial infections. J Hosp Infect. 2006;64(1):16-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2006.04.017 
  • [105]Boyce JM, Pittet D; Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee; HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force. Guideline for Hand Hygiene in Health-Care Settings: Recommendations of the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee and the HICPAC/SHEA/APIC/IDSA Hand Hygiene Task Force; Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Association for Professionals in Infection Control/Infectious Diseases Society of America. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2002;51(RR-16):1-45, quiz CE1-4.
  • [106]Pittet D, Hugonnet S, Harbarth S, Mourouga P, Sauvan V, Touveneau S, Perneger TV. Effectiveness of a hospital-wide programme to improve compliance with hand hygiene. Infection Control Programme. Lancet. 2000;356(9238):1307-12. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02814-2 
  • [107]Vernaz N, Sax H, Pittet D, Bonnabry P, Schrenzel J, Harbarth S. Temporal effects of antibiotic use and hand rub consumption on the incidence of MRSA and Clostridium difficile. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62(3):601-7. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkn199 
  • [108]Raad II, Hohn DC, Gilbreath BJ, Suleiman N, Hill LA, Bruso PA, Marts K, Mansfield PF, Bodey GP. Prevention of central venous catheter-related infections by using maximal sterile barrier precautions during insertion. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1994;15(4 Pt 1):231-8. DOI: 10.1086/646902 
  • [109]Parienti C, Lederle F, Impola C, Peterson L. Reduction of unnecessary intravenous catheter use: internal medicine house staffparticipate in a successful quality improvement project. Arch Intern Med. 1994;154(16):1829-32.
  • [110]Dezfulian C, Shojania K, Collard H, Kim H, Matthay M, Saint S. Subglottic secretion drainage for preventing ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Am J Med. 2005;118(1):11-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2004.07.051 
  • [111]Lorente L, Lecuona M, Jimenez A, Mora ML, Sierra A. Influence of an endotracheal tube with polyurethane cuff and subglottic secretion drainage on pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(11):1079-83. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200705-761OC 
  • [112]Drakulovic MB, Torres A, Bauer TT, Nicolas JM, Nogue S, Ferrer M. Supine body position as a risk factor for nosocomial pneumonia in mechanically ventilated patients: a randomised trial. Lancet. 1999;354(9193):1851-8. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)12251-1 
  • [113]Kollef MH. Ventilator-associated pneumonia: A multivariate analysis. JAMA. 1993;270(16):1965-70.
  • [114]Cook D, De Jonghe B, Brochard L, Brun-Buisson C. Influence of airway management on ventilator-associated pneumonia: evidence from randomized trials. JAMA. 1998;279(10):781-7. DOI: 10.1001/jama.279.10.781 
  • [115]Ibánez J, Penafiel A, Raurich JM, Marse P, Jordá R, Mata F. Gastroesophageal reflux in intubated patients receiving enteral nutrition: effect of supine and semirecumbent positions. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1992;16(5):419-22. DOI: 10.1177/0148607192016005419 
  • [116]Iregui MG, Vaughan WM, Kollef MH. Nonpharmacological prevention of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;23(5):489-96. DOI: 10.1055/s-2002-35720 
  • [117]Orozco-Levi M, Torres A, Ferrer M, Piera C, el-Ebiary M, de la Bellacasa JP, Rodriguez-Roisin R. Semirecumbent position protects from pulmonary aspiration but not completely from gastroesophageal reflux in mechanically ventilated patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152(4 Pt 1):1387-90.
  • [118]Torres A, Serra-Batlles J, Ros E, Piera C, Puig de la Bellacasa J, Cobos A, Lomeña F, Rodríguez-Roisin R. Pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in patients receiving mechanical ventilation: the effect of body position. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116(7):540-3.
  • [119]Girou E, Buu-Hoi A, Stephan F, Novara A, Gutmann L, Safar M, Fagon JY. Airway colonisation in long-term mechanically ventilated patients. Effect of semi-recumbent position and continuous subglottic suctioning. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30(2):225-33. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-003-2077-4 
  • [120]van Nieuwenhoven CA, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C, van Tiel FH, Joore HC, van Schijndel RJ, van der Tweel I, Ramsay G, Bonten MJ. Feasibility and effects of the semirecumbent position to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia: a randomized study. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(2):396-402. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000198529.76602.5E 
  • [121]Lewis S, Egger M, Sylvester P, Thomas S. Early enteral feeding versus "nil by mouth" after gastrointestinal surgery: systematic review and meta-analysis of controlled trails. BMJ. 2001;323(7316):773-6. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.323.7316.773 
  • [122]Weimann A, Braga M, Harsanyi L, Laviano A, Ljungqvist O, Soeters P; DGEM (German Society for Nutritional Medicine), Jauch KW, Kemen M, Hiesmayr JM, Horbach T, Kuse ER, Vestweber KH; ESPEN (European Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition). ESPEN Guidelines on Enteral Nutrition: Surgery including organ transplantation. Clin Nutr. 2006;25(2):224-44. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2006.01.015 
  • [123]Heyland D, Novak F, Drover J, Jain M, Su X, Suchner U. Should immunonutrition become routine in critically ill patients? A systematic review of the evidence. JAMA. 2001;286(8):944-53. DOI: 10.1001/jama.286.8.944 
  • [124]Heys S, walker L, Smith I, Eremin O. Enteral nutritional supplementation with key nutritiens in patients with critiacal illness and cancer: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Ann Surg. 1999;229(4):467-77. DOI: 10.1097/00000658-199904000-00004 
  • [125]Wiener RS, Wiener DC, Larson RJ. Benefits and risks of tight glucose control in critically ill adults: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2008;300(8):933-44. DOI: 10.1001/jama.300.8.933 
  • [126]van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, Verwaest C, Bruyninckx F, Schetz M, Vlasselaers D, Ferdinande P, Lauwers P, Bouillon R. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(19):1359-67. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa011300 
  • [127]Krinsley JS. Effect of an intensive glucose management protocol on the mortality of critically ill adult patients. Mayo Clin Proc. 2004;79(8):992-1000. DOI: 10.4065/79.8.992 
  • [128]van den Berghe G, et al. Intensive Insulin Therapy Study in Medical Intensive Care Patients. ESICM. Amsterdam; September 2005.
  • [129]Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, Blair D, Foster D, Dhingra V, Bellomo R, Cook D, Dodek P, Henderson WR, Hébert PC, Heritier S, Heyland DK, McArthur C, McDonald E, Mitchell I, Myburgh JA, Norton R, Potter J, Robinson BG, Ronco JJ. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(13):1283-97. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa0810625 
  • [130]Griesdale DE, de Souza RJ, van Dam RM, Heyland DK, Cook DJ, Malhotra A, Dhaliwal R, Henderson WR, Chittock DR, Finfer S, Talmor D. Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among critically ill patients: a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR study data. CMAJ. 2009;180(8):821-7. DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.090206 
  • [131]Brunkhorst FM, Wahl HG. Blood glucose measurements in the critically ill: more than just a blood draw. Crit Care. 2006;10(6):178. DOI: 10.1186/cc5110 
  • [132]Clement S, Braithwaite SS, Magee MF, Ahmann A, Smith EP, Schafer RG, Hirsch IB; American Diabetes Association Diabetes in Hospitals Writing Committee. Management of diabetes and hyperglycemia in hospitals. Diabetes Care. 2004;27(2):553-91. DOI: 10.2337/diacare.27.2.553 
  • [133]Nathens AB, Marshall JC. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract in surgical patients: a systematic review of the evidence. Arch Surg. 1999;134(2):170-6. DOI: 10.1001/archsurg.134.2.170 
  • [134]Silvestri L, van Saene HK, Milanese M, Gregori D, Gullo A. Selective decontamination of the digestive tract reduces bacterial bloodstream infection and mortality in critically ill patients: Systematic review of randomized, controlled trials. J Hosp Infect. 2007;65(3):187-203. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2006.10.014 
  • [135]Krueger WA, Lenhart FP, Neeser G, Ruckdeschel G, Schreckhase H, Eissner HJ, Forst H, Eckart J, Peter K, Unertl KE. Influence of combined intravenous and topical antibiotic prophylaxis on the incidence of infections, organ dysfunctions, and mortality in critically ill surgical patients: a prospective, stratified, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166(8):1029-37. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.2105141 
  • [136]Bergmans DC, Bonten MJ, Gaillard CA, Paling JC, van der Geest S, van Tiel FH, Beysens AJ, de Leeuw PW, Stobberingh EE. Prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia by oral decontamination: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164(3):382-8.
  • [137]de Smet AM, Kluytmans JA, Cooper BS, Mascini EM, Benus RF, van der Werf TS, van der Hoeven JG, Pickkers P, Bogaers-Hofman D, van der Meer NJ, Bernards AT, Kuijper EJ, Joore JC, Leverstein-van Hall MA, Bindels AJ, Jansz AR, Wesselink RM, de Jongh BM, Dennesen PJ, van Asselt GJ, te Velde LF, Frenay IH, Kaasjager K, Bosch FH, van Iterson M, Thijsen SF, Kluge GH, Pauw W, de Vries JW, Kaan JA, Arends JP, Aarts LP, Sturm PD, Harinck HI, Voss A, Uijtendaal EV, Blok HE, Thieme Groen ES, Pouw ME, Kalkman CJ, Bonten MJ. Decontamination of the digestive tract and oropharynx in ICU patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(1):20-31. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa0800394 
  • [138]de Jonge E, Schultz MJ, Spanjaard L, Bossuyt PM, Vroom MB, Dankert J, Kesecioglu J. Effects of selective decontamination of digestive tract on mortality and acquistition of resistant bacteria in intensive care: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;362(9389):1011-6. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14409-1 
  • [139]de Jonge E, Schultz MJ, Spanjaard L, Bossuyt PM, Vroom MB, Dankert J, Kesecioglu J. Effects of selective decontamination of digestive tract on mortality and acquistition of resistant bacteria in intensive care: a randomized controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;362(9389):1011-6. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14409-1 
  • [140]Heininger A, Meyer E, Schwab F, Marschal M, Unertl K, Krueger WA. Effects of long-term routine use of selective digestive decontamination on antimicrobial resistance. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32(10):1569-76. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-006-0304-5 
  • [141]Leone M, Albanese J, Antonini F, Nguyen-Michel A, Martin C. Long-term (6-year) effect of selective digestive decontamination on antimicrobial resistance in intensive care, multiple-trauma patients. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(8):2090-5. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000079606.16776.C5 
  • [142]Oostdijk EA, de Smet AM, Blok HE, Thieme Groen ES, van Asselt GJ, Benus RF, Bernards SA, Frénay IH, Jansz AR, de Jongh BM, Kaan JA, Leverstein-van Hall MA, Mascini EM, Pauw W, Sturm PD, Thijsen SF, Kluytmans JA, Bonten MJ. Ecological effects of selective decontamination on resistant gram-negative bacterial colonization. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010;181(5):452-7. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200908-1210OC 
  • [143]Chlebicki MP, Safdar N. Topical chlorhexidine for prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(2):595-602. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000253395.70708.AC 
  • [144]Segers P, Speekenbrink RG, Ubbink DT, van Ogtrop ML, de Mol BA. Prevention of nosocomial infection in cardiac surgery by decontamination of the nasopharynx and oropharynx with chlorhexidine gluconate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2006;296(20):2460-6. DOI: 10.1001/jama.296.20.2460 
  • [145]Kola A, Gastmeier P. Efficacy of oral chlorhexidine in preventing lower respiratory tract infections: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Hosp Infect. 2007;66(3):207-16. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2007.03.025 
  • [146]Chan EY, Ruest A, Meade MO, Cook DJ. Oral decontamination for prevention of pneumonia in mechanically ventilated adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2007;334(7599):889. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.39136.528160.BE 
  • [147]Piarroux R, Grenouillet F, Balvay P, Tran V, Blasco G, Millon L, Boillot A. Assessment of preemptive treatment to prevent severe candidiasis in critically ill surgical patients. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(12):2443-9. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000147726.62304.7F 
  • [148]Ho K, Rochford S, John G. The use of topical nonabsorabable gastrointestinal antifungal prophylaxis to prevent fungal infections in critically ill immunocompetent patients: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(10):2383-92. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000181726.32675.37 
  • [149]Veenstra DL, Saint S, Saha S, Lumley T, Sullivan SD. Efficacy of antiseptic-impregnated central venous catheters in preventing catheter-related bloodstream infection. JAMA. 1999;281(3):261-7. DOI: 10.1001/jama.281.3.261 
  • [150]Geffers C, Zuschneid I, Eckmanns T, Rüden H, Gastmeier P. The relationship between methodological trial quality and the effects of impregnated central venous catheters. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29(3):403-9.
  • [151]Walder B, Pittet D, Tramèr M. Prevention of bloodstream infections with central venous catheters treated with anti-infective agents depends on catheter type and insertion time: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2002;23(12):748-56. DOI: 10.1086/502005 
  • [152]Johnson J, Kuskowski M, Wilt T. Systematic review: antimicrobial urinary cathetrs to prevent catheter-associated urinary tract infection in hospitalized patients. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144(2):116-26.
  • [153]Falagas M, Fragoulis K, Bliziotis I, Chatzinikolaou I. Rifampicin-impregnated central venous catheters: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2007;59(3):359-69. DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkl522 
  • [154]Fridkin SK, Pear SM, Williamson TH, Galgiani JN, Jarvis WR. The role of understaffing in central venous catheter-associated bloodstream infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1996;17(3):150-8. DOI: 10.1086/647262 
  • [155]Archibald LK, Manning ML, Bell LM, Banerjee S, Jarvis WR. Patient density, nurse-to-patient ratio and nosocomial infection risk in a pediatric cardiac intensive care unit. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1997;16(11):1045-8. DOI: 10.1097/00006454-199711000-00008 
  • [156]Dorsey G, Borneo HT, Sun SJ, Wells J, Steele L, Howland K, Perdreau-Remington F, Bangsberg DR. A heterogeneous outbreak of Enterobacter cloacae and Serratia marcescens infections in a surgical intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2000;21(7):465-9. DOI: 10.1086/501789 
  • [157]Pessoa-Silva CL, Toscano CM, Moreira BM, Santos AL, Frota AC, Solari CA, Amorim EL, Carvalho Mda G, Teixeira LM, Jarvis WR. Infection due to extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Salmonella enterica subs. enterica serotype infantis in aneonatal unit. J Pediatr. 2002;141(3):381-7. DOI: 10.1067/mpd.2002.127279 
  • [158]Robert J, Fridkin SK, Blumberg HM, Anderson B, White N, Ray SM, Chan J, Jarvis WR. The influence of the composition of the nursing staff on primary bloodstream infection rates in a surgical intensive care unit. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 2000;21(1):12-7. DOI: 10.1086/501690 
  • [159]Harbarth S, Sudre P, Dharan S, Cadenas M, Pittet D. Outbreak of Enterobacter cloacae related to understaffing, overcrowding, and poor hygiene practices. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol. 1999;20(9):598-603. DOI: 10.1086/501677 
  • [160]Halwani M, Solaymani-Dodaran M, Grundmann H, Coupland C, Slack R. Cross-transmission of nosocomial pathogens in an adult intensive care unit: incidence and risk factors. J Hosp Infect. 2006;63(1):39-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2005.10.012 
  • [161]Hugonnet S, Chevrolet JC, Pittet D. The effect of workload on infection risk in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(1):76-81. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000251125.08629.3F 
  • [162]William BM, Thawani N, Sae-Tia S, Corazza GR. Hyposplenism: a comprehensive review. Part II: clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and management. Hematology. 2007;12(2):89-98. DOI: 10.1080/10245330600938463 
  • [163]Landgren O, Björkholm M, Konradsen HB, Söderqvist M, Nilsson B, Gustavsson A, Axdorph U, Kalin M, Grimfors G. A prospective study on antibody response to repeated vaccinations with pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide in splenectomized individuals with special reference to Hodgkin's lymphoma. J Intern Med. 2004;255(6):664-73. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2004.01312.x 
  • [164]Cherif H, Landgren O, Konradsen HB, Kalin M, Björkholm M. Poor antibody response to pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccination suggests increased susceptibility to pneumococcal infection in splenectomized patients with hematological diseases. Vaccine. 2006;24(1):75-81. DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2005.07.054 
  • [165]Davies JM, Barnes R, Milligan D; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Working Party of the Haematology/Oncology Task Force. Update of guidelines for the prevention and treatment of infection in patients with an absent or dysfunctional spleen. Clin Med. 2002;2(5):440-3.
  • [166]Robert Koch-Institut. Empfehlungen der Ständigen Impfkommission (STIKO) am Robert Koch-Institut/Stand: Juli 2009. Epid Bull. 2009;30:279-99. Available from: http://www.rki.de/cln_178/nn_1378492/DE/Content/Infekt/EpidBull/Archiv/2009/30__09,templateId=raw,property=publicationFile.pdf/30_09.pdf 
  • [167]Jackson LA, Neuzil KM, Yu O, Benson P, Barlow WE, Adams AL, Hanson CA, Mahoney LD, Shay DK, Thompson WW; Vaccine Safety Datalink. Effectiveness of pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in older adults. N Engl J Med. 2003;348(18):1747-55. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa022678 
  • [168]Vila-Córcoles A, Ochoa-Gondar O, Hospital I, Ansa X, Vilanova A, Rodríguez T, Llor C; EVAN Study Group. Protective effects of the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine in the elderly population: the EVAN-65 study. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43(7):860-8. DOI: 10.1086/507340 
  • [169]Ortqvist A, Hedlund J, Burman LA, Elbel E, Höfer M, Leinonen M, Lindblad I, Sundelöf B, Kalin M. Randomised trial of 23-valent pneumococcal capsular polysaccharide vaccine in prevention of pneumonia in middle-aged and elderly people. Swedish Pneumococcal Vaccination Study Group. Lancet. 1998;351(9100):399-403. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)07358-3 
  • [170]Wacha H, Hau T, Dittmer R, Ohmann C. Risk factors associated with intraabdominal infections: a prospective multicenter study. Peritonitis Study Group. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 1999;384(1):24-32. DOI: 10.1007/s004230050169 
  • [171]Barie PS, Williams MD, McCollam JS, Bates BM, Qualy RL, Lowry SF, Fry DE; PROWESS Surgical Evaluation Committee. Benefit/risk profile of drotrecogin alfa (activated) in surgical patients with severe sepsis. Am J Surg. 2004;188(3):212-20. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2004.06.008 
  • [172]Koperna T, Schulz F. Relaparotomy in peritonitis: prognosis and treatment of patients with persisting intraabdominal infection. World J Surg. 2000;24(1):32-7. DOI: 10.1007/s002689910007 
  • [173]Kaiser RE, Cerra FB. Progressive necrotizing surgical infections--a unified approach. J Trauma. 1981;21(5):349-55. DOI: 10.1097/00005373-198105000-00003 
  • [174]Byrnes MC, Coopersmith CM. Prevention of catheter-related blood stream infection. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2007;13(4):411-5. DOI: 10.1097/MCC.0b013e3281f8d279 
  • [175]Zühlke H. Autologe Verfahren zur Therapie von Gefäßinfektionen [Autologous procedure for the treatment of vascular infections]. Gefäßchirurgie. 2006;11(6):409-422. DOI: 10.1007/s00772-006-0491-y 
  • [176]Arens S, Hansis M. Implantate in der Unfallchirurgie: Osteosynthese mit Titan. Dtsch Arztebl. 1998;95(24):1516-1518.
  • [177]Sia IG, Berbari EF, Karchmer AW. Prosthetic joint infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2005;19(4):885-914. DOI: 10.1016/j.idc.2005.07.010 
  • [178]Mehendiratta V, McCarty BC, Gomez L, Graviss EA, Musher DM. Computerized tomography (CT)-guided aspiration of abscesses: outcome of therapy at a tertiary care hospital. J Infect. 2007;54(2):122-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2006.03.004 
  • [179]Schneider JI. Rapid infectious killers. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2004;22(4):1099-115. DOI: 10.1016/j.emc.2004.05.007 
  • [180]van Ruler O, Lamme B, Gouma DJ, Reitsma JB, Boermeester MA. Variables associated with positive findings at relaparotomy in patients with secondary peritonitis. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(2):468-76. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000253399.03545.2D 
  • [181]Pieracci FM, Barie PS. Intra-abdominal infections. Curr Opin Crit Care. 2007;13(4):440-9. DOI: 10.1097/MCC.0b013e32825a6720 
  • [182]Klompas M, Yokoe DS. Automated surveillance of health care-associated infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;48(9):1268-75. DOI: 10.1086/597591 
  • [183]Intensive Care Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemiology (ICARE) Surveillance Report, data summary from January 1996 through December 1997: A report from the National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance (NNIS) System. Am J Infect Control. 1999;27(3):279-84. DOI: 10.1053/ic.1999.v27.a98878 
  • [184]Engel C, Brunkhorst FM, Bone HG, Brunkhorst R, Gerlach H, Grond S, Gruendling M, Huhle G, Jaschinski U, John S, Mayer K, Oppert M, Olthoff D, Quintel M, Ragaller M, Rossaint R, Stuber F, Weiler N, Welte T, Bogatsch H, Hartog C, Loeffler M, Reinhart K. Epidemiology of sepsis in Germany: results from a national prospective multicenter study. Intensive Care Med. 2007;33(4):606-18. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-006-0517-7 
  • [185]Freid MA, Vosti KL. The importance of underlying disease in patients with gram-negative bacteremia. Arch Intern Med. 1968;121(5):418-23.
  • [186]McCabe WR, Jackson GG. Gram negative bacteremia: I. Etiology and Ecology. Arch Intern Med. 1962;110(6):847-855.
  • [187]Bryant RE, Hood AF, Hood CE, Koenig MG. Factors affecting mortality of gram-negative rod bacteremia. Arch Intern Med. 1971;127(1):120-8.
  • [188]Young LS, Martin WJ, Meyer RD, Weinstein RJ, Anderson ET. Gram-negative rod bacteremia: microbiologic, immunologic, and therapeutic considerations. Ann Intern Med. 1977;86(4):456-71.
  • [189]Kreger BE, Craven DE, McCabe WR. Gram-negative bacteremia. IV. Re-evaluation of clinical features and treatment in 612 patients. Am J Med. 1980;68(3):344-55. DOI: 10.1016/0002-9343(80)90102-3 
  • [190]Leibovici L, Paul M, Poznanski O, Drucker M, Samra Z, Konigsberger H, Pitlik SD. Monotherapy versus beta-lactam-aminoglycoside combination treatment for gram-negative bacteremia: a prospective, observational study. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1997;41(5):1127-33.
  • [191]Chow JW, Fine MJ, Shlaes DM, Quinn JP, Hooper DC, Johnson MP, Ramphal R, Wagener MM, Miyashiro DK, Yu VL. Enterobacter bacteremia: clinical features and emergence of antibiotic resistance during therapy. Ann Intern Med. 1991;115(8):585-90.
  • [192]Vidal F, Mensa J, Almela M, Martínez JA, Marco F, Casals C, Gatell JM, Soriano E, Jimenez de Anta MT. Epidemiology and outcome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteremia, with special emphasis on the influence of antibiotic treatment. Analysis of 189 episodes. Arch Intern Med. 1996;156(18):2121-6.
  • [193]Schiappa DA, Hayden MK, Matushek MG, Hashemi FN, Sullivan J, Smith KY, Miyashiro D, Quinn JP, Weinstein RA, Trenholme GM. Ceftazidime-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli bloodstream infection: a case-control and molecular epidemiologic investigation. J Infect Dis. 1996;174(3):529-36.
  • [194]Caballero-Granado FJ, Cisneros JM, Luque R, Torres-Tortosa M, Gamboa F, Díez F, Villanueva JL, Pérez-Cano R, Pasquau J, Merino D, Menchero A, Mora D, López-Ruz MA, Vergara A. Comparative study of bacteremias caused by Enterococcus spp. with and without high-level resistance to gentamicin. The Grupo Andaluz para el estudio de las Enfermedades Infecciosas. J Clin Microbiol. 1998;36(2):520-5.
  • [195]Ispahani P, Pearson NJ, Greenwood D. An analysis of community and hospital-acquired bacteraemia in a large teaching hospital in the United Kingdom. Q J Med. 1987;63(241):427-40.
  • [196]Leibovici L, Drucker M, Konigsberger H, Samra Z, Harrari S, Ashkenazi S, Pitlik SD. Septic shock in bacteremic patients: risk factors, features and prognosis. Scand J Infect Dis. 1997;29(1):71-5. DOI: 10.3109/00365549709008668 
  • [197]Leibovici L, Shraga I, Drucker M, Konigsberger H, Samra Z, Pitlik SD. The benefit of appropriate empirical antibiotic treatment in patients with bloodstream infection. J Intern Med. 1998;244(5):379-86. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1998.00379.x 
  • [198]Kollef MH, Sherman G, Ward S, Fraser VJ. Inadequate antimicrobial treatment of infections: a risk factor for hospital mortality among critically ill patients. Chest. 1999;115(2):462-74. DOI: 10.1378/chest.115.2.462 
  • [199]Ibrahim EH, Sherman G, Ward S, Fraser VJ, Kollef MH. The influence of inadequate antimicrobial treatment of bloodstream infections on patient outcomes in the ICU setting. Chest. 2000;118(1):146-55. DOI: 10.1378/chest.118.1.146 
  • [200]Harbarth S, Ferriere K, Hugonnet S, Ricou B, Suter P, Pittet D. Epidemiology and prognostic determinants of bloodstream infections in surgical intensive care. Arch Surg. 2002;137(12):1353-9; discussion 1359. DOI: 10.1001/archsurg.137.12.1353 
  • [201]Hanon FX, Monnet DL, Sorensen TL, Molbak K, Pedersen G, Schonheyder H. Survival of patients with bacteraemia in relation to initial empirical antimicrobial treatment. Scand J Infect Dis. 2002;34(7):520-8. DOI: 10.1080/00365540110080827 
  • [202]Harbarth S, Garbino J, Pugin J, Romand JA, Lew D, Pittet D. Inappropriate initial antimicrobial therapy and its effect on survival in a clinical trial of immunomodulating therapy for severe sepsis. Am J Med. 2003;115(7):529-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2003.07.005 
  • [203]Zaragoza R, Artero A, Camarena JJ, Sancho S, Gonzalez R, Nogueira JM. The influence of inadequate empirical antimicrobial treatment on patients with bloodstream infections in an intensive care unit. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2003;9(5):412-8. DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-0691.2003.00656.x 
  • [204]Leone M, Bourgoin A, Cambon S, Dubuc M, Albanese J, Martin C. Empirical antimicrobial therapy of septic shock patients: adequacy and impact on the outcome. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(2):462-7. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000050298.59549.4A 
  • [205]Garnacho-Montero J, Garcia-Garmendia JL, Barrero-Almodovar A, Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Perez-Paredes C, Ortiz-Leyba C. Impact of adequate empirical antibiotic therapy on the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(12):2742-51. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000098031.24329.10 
  • [206]Paul M, Benuri-Silbiger I, Soares-Weiser K, Leibovici L. Beta lactam monotherapy versus beta lactam-aminoglycoside combination therapy for sepsis in immunocompetent patients: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ. 2004;328(7441):668. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.38028.520995.63 
  • [207]Heyland DK, Dodek P, Muscedere J, Day A, Cook D. Randomized trial of combination versus monotherapy for the empiric treatment of suspected ventilator-associated pneumonia. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(3):737-44. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0B013E31816203D6 
  • [208]Fowler VG Jr, Boucher HW, Corey GR, Abrutyn E, Karchmer AW, Rupp ME, Levine DP, Chambers HF, Tally FP, Vigliani GA, Cabell CH, Link AS, DeMeyer I, Filler SG, Zervos M, Cook P, Parsonnet J, Bernstein JM, Price CS, Forrest GN, Fätkenheuer G, Gareca M, Rehm SJ, Brodt HR, Tice A, Cosgrove SE; S. aureus Endocarditis and Bacteremia Study Group. Daptomycin versus standard therapy for bacteremia and endocarditis caused by Staphylococcus aureus. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(7):653-65. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa053783 
  • [209]Babinchak T, Ellis-Grosse E, Dartois N, Rose GM, Loh E. The efficacy and safety of tigecycline for the treatment of complicated intra-abdominal infections: analysis of pooled clinical trial data. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41 Suppl 5:S354-67. DOI: 10.1086/431676 
  • [210]Byl B, Jacobs F, Wallemacq P, Rossi C, de Francquen P, Cappello M, Leal T, Thys JP. Vancomycin penetration of uninfected pleural fluid exudate after continuous or intermittent infusion. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003;47(6):2015-7. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.47.6.2015-2017.2003 
  • [211]Cruciani M, Gatti G, Lazzarini L, Furlan G, Broccali G, Malena M, Franchini C, Concia E. Penetration of vancomycin into human lung tissue. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1996;38(5):865-9. DOI: 10.1093/jac/38.5.865 
  • [212]Kollef MH, Rello J, Cammarata SK, Croos-Dabrera RV, Wunderink RG. Clinical cure and survival in Gram-positive ventilator-associated pneumonia: retrospective analysis of two double-blind studies comparing linezolid with vancomycin. Intensive Care Med. 2004;30(3):388-94. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-003-2088-1 
  • [213]Wunderink RG, Rello J, Cammarata SK, Croos-Dabrera RV, Kollef MH. Linezolid vs vancomycin: analysis of two double-blind studies of patients with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus nosocomial pneumonia. Chest. 2003;124(5):1789-97. DOI: 10.1378/chest.124.5.1789 
  • [214]Sharpe JN, Shively EH, Polk HC Jr. Clinical and economic outcomes of oral linezolid versus intravenous vancomycin in the treatment of MRSA-complicated, lower-extremity skin and soft-tissue infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Surg. 2005;189(4):425-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2005.01.011 
  • [215]Weigelt J, Itani K, Stevens D, Lau W, Dryden M, Knirsch C. Linezolid versus vancomycin in treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49(6):2260-6. DOI: 10.1128/AAC.49.6.2260-2266.2005 
  • [216]Weigelt J, Kaafarani HM, Itani KM, Swanson RN. Linezolid eradicates MRSA better than vancomycin from surgical-site infections. Am J Surg. 2004;188(6):760-6. DOI: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2004.08.045 
  • [217]Gang RK, Sanyal SC, Mokaddas E, Lari AR. Rifampicin as an adjunct to vancomycin therapy in MRSA septicaemia in burns. Burns. 1999;25(7):640-4. DOI: 10.1016/S0305-4179(99)00045-5 
  • [218]Grif K, Dierich MP, Pfaller K, Miglioli PA, Allerberger F. In vitro activity of fosfomycin in combination with various antistaphylococcal substances. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2001;48(2):209-17. DOI: 10.1093/jac/48.2.209 
  • [219]Yzerman EP, Boelens HA, Vogel M, Verbrugh HA. Efficacy and safety of teicoplanin plus rifampicin in the treatment of bacteraemic infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1998;42(2):233-9. DOI: 10.1093/jac/42.2.233 
  • [220]Howden BP, Ward PB, Charles PG, Korman TM, Fuller A, du Cros P, Grabsch EA, Roberts SA, Robson J, Read K, Bak N, Hurley J, Johnson PD, Morris AJ, Mayall BC, Grayson ML. Treatment outcomes for serious infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38(4):521-8. DOI: 10.1086/381202 
  • [221]Baddour LM, Yu VL, Klugman KP, Feldman C, Ortqvist A, Rello J, Morris AJ, Luna CM, Snydman DR, Ko WC, Chedid MB, Hui DS, Andremont A, Chiou CC; International Pneumococcal Study Group. Combination antibiotic therapy lowers mortality among severely ill patients with pneumococcal bacteremia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;170(4):440-4. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200311-1578OC 
  • [222]Nguyen MH, Peacock JE Jr, Tanner DC, Morris AJ, Nguyen ML, Snydman DR, Wagener MM, Yu VL. Therapeutic approaches in patients with candidemia. Evaluation in a multicenter, prospective, observational study. Arch Intern Med. 1995;155(22):2429-35.
  • [223]Jacobs S, Price Evans DA, Tariq M, Al Omar NF. Fluconazole improves survival in septic shock: a randomized double-blind prospective study. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(7):1938-46. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000074724.71242.88 
  • [224]Bochud PY, Glauser MP, Calandra T. Antibiotics in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27 Suppl 1:S33-48.
  • [225]Sobel JD, Rex JH. Invasive candidiasis: turning risk into a practical prevention policy? Clin Infect Dis. 2001;33(2):187-90. DOI: 10.1086/321812 
  • [226]Link H, Bohme A, Cornely OA, Hoffken K, Kellner O, Kern WV, Mahlberg R, Maschmeyer G, Nowrousian MR, Ostermann H, Ruhnke M, Sezer O, Schiel X, Wilhelm M, Auner HW; Diseases Working Party (AGIHO) of the German Society of Hematology and Oncology (DGHO); Group Interventional Therapy of Unexplained Fever, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Supportivmassnahmen in der Onkologie (ASO) of the Deutsche Krebsgesellschaft (DKG-German Cancer Society). Antimicrobial therapy of unexplained fever in neutropenic patients - guidelines of the Infectious Diseases Working Party (AGIHO) of the German Society of Hematology and Oncology (DGHO), Study Group Interventional Therapy of Unexplained Fever, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Supportivmassnahmen in der Onkologie (ASO) of the Deutsche Krebsgesellschaft (DKG-German Cancer Society). Ann Hematol. 2003;82 Suppl 2:S105-17.
  • [227]Maschmeyer G, Böhme A, Buchheidt D, Cornely OA, Fricke HJ, Karthaus M, Lehrnbecher T, Link H, Shah PM, Wilhelm M. Diagnostik und Therapie von Infektionen bei Patienten in der Hämatologie und Onkologie: Leitlinien der Sektion Infektionen in der Hämatologie/Onkologie der Paul-Ehrlich-Gesellschaft e.V. Chemother J. 2004;13(3):134-141. Available from: http://www.wissenschaftliche-verlagsgesellschaft.de/CTJ/CTJ2004/CTJ3-2004/Consensus-haematologie.pdf 
  • [228]Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, Ressler J, Muzzin A, Knoblich B, Peterson E, Tomlanovich M; Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(19):1368-77. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa010307 
  • [229]Swenson JD, Bull D, Stringham J. Subjective assessment of left ventricular preload using transesophageal echocardiography: corresponding pulmonary artery occlusion pressures. J Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth. 2001;15(5):580-3. DOI: 10.1053/jcan.2001.26535 
  • [230]Buhre W, Buhre K, Kazmaier S, Sonntag H, Weyland A. Assessment of cardiac preload by indicator dilution and transoesophageal echocardiography. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 2001;18(10):662-7.
  • [231]Kumar A, Anel R, Bunnell E, Habet K, Zanotti S, Marshall S, Neumann A, Ali A, Cheang M, Kavinsky C, Parrillo JE. Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure and central venous pressure fail to predict ventricular filling volume, cardiac performance, or the response to volume infusion in normal subjects. Crit Care Med. 2004;32(3):691-9. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000114996.68110.C9 
  • [232]Godje O, Peyerl M, Seebauer T, Lamm P, Mair H, Reichart B. Central venous pressure, pulmonary capillary wedge pressure and intrathoracic blood volumes as preload indicators in cardiac surgery patients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1998;13(5):533-9; discussion 539-40. DOI: 10.1016/S1010-7940(98)00063-3 
  • [233]Nguyen HB, Corbett SW, Steele R, Banta J, Clark RT, Hayes SR, Edwards J, Cho TW, Wittlake WA. Implementation of a bundle of quality indicators for the early management of severe sepsis and septic shock is associated with decreased mortality. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(4):1105-12. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000259463.33848.3D 
  • [234]Ferrer R, Artigas A, Levy MM, Blanco J, González-Díaz G, Garnacho-Montero J, Ibáñez J, Palencia E, Quintana M, de la Torre-Prados MV; Edusepsis Study Group. Improvement in process of care and outcome after a multicenter severe sepsis educational program in Spain. JAMA. 2008;299(19):2294-303. DOI: 10.1001/jama.299.19.2294 
  • [235]Kortgen A, Niederprüm P, Bauer M. Implementation of an evidence-based "standard operating procedure" and outcome in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(4):943-9. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000206112.32673.D4 
  • [236]Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, Meier-Hellmann A, Ragaller M, Weiler N, Moerer O, Gruendling M, Oppert M, Grond S, Olthoff D, Jaschinski U, John S, Rossaint R, Welte T, Schaefer M, Kern P, Kuhnt E, Kiehntopf M, Hartog C, Natanson C, Loeffler M, Reinhart K; German Competence Network Sepsis (SepNet). Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(2):125-39. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa070716 
  • [237]Schortgen F, Lacherade JC, Bruneel F, Cattaneo I, Hemery F, Lemaire F, Brochard L. Effects of hydroxyethylstarch and gelatin on renal function in severe sepsis: a multicentre randomised study. Lancet. 2001;357(9260):911-6. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04211-2 
  • [238]Zarychanski R, Turgeon A, Fergusson D, Cook D, Hébert P, Bagshaw S, Monsour D, McIntyre L. Renal Outcomes Following Hydroxyethyl Strach Resuscitation: A Meta-Analysis Of Randomized Trials. Clinical & Investigative Medicine. 2008;31(Suppl 4):26.
  • [239]Dart AB, Mutter TC, Ruth CA, Taback SP. Hydroxyethyl starch (HES) versus other fluid therapies: effects on kidney function. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2010;(1):CD007594. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD007594.pub2 
  • [240]Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R; SAFE Study Investigators. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(22):2247-56. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa040232 
  • [241]Meier-Hellmann A. Hämodynamische Stabilisierung in der Sepsis. Anästhesiologie & Intensivmedizin. 2000;41(7):601-13.
  • [242]Gattinoni L, Brazzi L, Pelosi P, Latini R, Tognoni G, Pesenti A, Fumagalli R. A trial of goal-oriented hemodynamic therapy in critically ill patients. SvO2 Collaborative Group. N Engl J Med. 1995;333(16):1025-32. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199510193331601 
  • [243]Kern JW, Shoemaker WC. Meta-analysis of hemodynamic optimization in high-risk patients. Crit Care Med. 2002;30(8):1686-92. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200208000-00002 
  • [244]Hayes MA, Yau EH, Timmins AC, Hinds CJ, Watson D. Response of critically ill patients to treatment aimed at achieving supranormal oxygen delivery and consumption. Relationship to outcome. Chest. 1993;103(3):886-95. DOI: 10.1378/chest.103.3.886 
  • [245]Meier-Hellmann A, Bredle DL, Specht M, Hannemann L, Reinhart K. Dopexamine increases splanchnic blood flow but decreases gastric mucosal pH in severe septic patients treated with dobutamine. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(10):2166-71. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199910000-00015 
  • [246]Bennett ED. Dopexamine: much more than a vasoactive agent. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(10):1621-2. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199810000-00002 
  • [247]Byers RJ, Eddleston JM, Pearson RC, Bigley G, McMahon RF. Dopexamine reduces the incidence of acute inflammation in the gut mucosa after abdominal surgery in high-risk patients. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(9):1787-93. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199909000-00014 
  • [248]Kiefer P, Tugtekin I, Wiedeck H, Bracht H, Geldner G, Georgieff M, Radermacher P. Effect of a dopexamine-induced increase in cardiac index on splanchnic hemodynamics in septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161(3 Pt 1):775-9.
  • [249]Schmidt W, Häcker A, Gebhard MM, Martin E, Schmidt H. Dopexamine attenuates endotoxin-induced microcirculatory changes in rat mesentery: role of beta2 adrenoceptors. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(10):1639-45. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199810000-00012 
  • [250]Müllner M, Urbanek B, Havel C, Losert H, Waechter F, Gamper G. Vasopressors for shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(3):CD003709. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003709.pub2 
  • [251]Martin C, Viviand X, Leone M, Thirion X. Effect of norepinephrine on the outcome of septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(8):2758-65. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200008000-00012 
  • [252]Annane D, Vignon P, Renault A, Bollaert PE, Charpentier C, Martin C, Troché G, Ricard JD, Nitenberg G, Papazian L, Azoulay E, Bellissant E; CATS Study Group. Norepinephrine plus dobutamine versus epinephrine alone for management of septic shock: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2007;370(9588):676-84. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61344-0 
  • [253]Prielipp RC, MacGregor DA, Royster RL, Kon ND, Hines MH, Butterworth JF 4th. Dobutamine antagonizes epinephrine's biochemical and cardiotonic effects: results of an in vitro model using human lymphocytes and a clinical study in patients recovering from cardiac surgery. Anesthesiology. 1998;89(1):49-57. DOI: 10.1097/00000542-199807000-00010 
  • [254]Dünser MW, Mayr AJ, Ulmer H, Knotzer H, Sumann G, Pajk W, Friesenecker B, Hasibeder WR. Arginine vasopressin in advanced vasodilatory shock: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Circulation. 2003;107(18):2313-9. DOI: 10.1161/01.CIR.0000066692.71008.BB 
  • [255]Tsuneyoshi I, Yamada H, Kakihana Y, Nakamura M, Nakano Y, Boyle WA 3rd. Hemodynamic and metabolic effects of low-dose vasopressin infusions in vasodilatory septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(3):487-93. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200103000-00004 
  • [256]Malay MB, Ashton RC Jr, Landry DW, Townsend RN. Low-dose vasopressin in the treatment of vasodilatory septic shock. J Trauma. 1999;47(4):699-703. DOI: 10.1097/00005373-199910000-00014 
  • [257]Patel BM, Chittock DR, Russell JA, Walley KR. Beneficial effects of short-term vasopressin infusion during severe septic shock. Anesthesiology. 2002;96(3):576-82. DOI: 10.1097/00000542-200203000-00011 
  • [258]Dünser MW, Mayr AJ, Tür A, Pajk W, Barbara F, Knotzer H, Ulmer H, Hasibeder WR. Ischemic skin lesions as a complication of continuous vasopressin infusion in catecholamine-resistant vasodilatory shock: incidence and risk factors. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(5):1394-8. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000059722.94182.79 
  • [259]Russell JA, Walley KR, Singer J, Gordon AC, Hébert PC, Cooper DJ, Holmes CL, Mehta S, Granton JT, Storms MM, Cook DJ, Presneill JJ, Ayers D; VASST Investigators. Vasopressin versus norepinephrine infusion in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(9):877-87. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa067373 
  • [260]Bellomo R, Chapman M, Finfer S, Hickling K, Myburgh J. Low-dose dopamine in patients with early renal dysfunction: a placebo-controlled randomised trial. Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society (ANZICS) Clinical Trials Group. Lancet. 2000;356(9248):2139-43. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)03495-4 
  • [261]Marik PE, Iglesias J. Low-dose dopamine does not prevent acute renal failure in patients with septic shock and oliguria. NORASEPT II Study Investigators. Am J Med. 1999;107(4):387-90. DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00246-6 
  • [262]Chertow GM, Sayegh MH, Allgren RL, Lazarus JM. Is the administration of dopamine associated with adverse or favorable outcomes in acute renal failure? Auriculin Anaritide Acute Renal Failure Study Group. Am J Med. 1996;101(1):49-53. DOI: 10.1016/S0002-9343(96)00075-7 
  • [263]Kellum JA, M Decker J. Use of dopamine in acute renal failure: a meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(8):1526-31. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200108000-00005 
  • [264]Marik PE. Low-dose dopamine: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(7):877-83. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-002-1346-y 
  • [265]Debaveye YA, Van den Berghe GH. Is there still a place for dopamine in the modern intensive care unit? Anesth Analg. 2004;98(2):461-8. DOI: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000096188.35789.37 
  • [266]Oppert M, Engel C, Brunkhorst FM, Bogatsch H, Reinhart K, Frei U, Eckardt KU, Loeffler M, John S; German Competence Network Sepsis (Sepnet). Acute renal failure in patients with severe sepsis and septic shock--a significant independent risk factor for mortality: results from the German Prevalence Study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2008;23(3):904-9. DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfm610 
  • [267]Vinsonneau C, Camus C, Combes A, Costa de Beauregard MA, Klouche K, Boulain T, Pallot JL, Chiche JD, Taupin P, Landais P, Dhainaut JF; Hemodiafe Study Group. Continuous venovenous haemodiafiltration versus intermittent haemodialysis for acute renal failure in patients with multiple-organ dysfunction syndrome: a multicentre randomised trial. Lancet. 2006;368(9533):379-85. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69111-3 
  • [268]Kellum JA, Angus DC, Johnson JP, Leblanc M, Griffin M, Ramakrishnan N, Linde-Zwirble WT. Continuous versus intermittent renal replacement therapy: a meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(1):29-37. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-001-1159-4 
  • [269]Tonelli M, Manns B, Feller-Kopman D. Acute renal failure in the intensive care unit: a systematic review of the impact of dialytic modality on mortality and renal recovery. Am J Kidney Dis. 2002;40(5):875-85. DOI: 10.1053/ajkd.2002.36318 
  • [270]Augustine JJ, Sandy D, Seifert TH, Paganini EP. A randomized controlled trial comparing intermittent with continuous dialysis in patients with ARF. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004;44(6):1000-7. DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2004.08.022 
  • [271]Gasparovi V, Filipovi-Grci I, Merkler M, Pisl Z. Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) or intermittent hemodialysis (IHD)--what is the procedure of choice in critically ill patients? Ren Fail. 2003;25(5):855-62. DOI: 10.1081/JDI-120024300 
  • [272]Mehta RL, McDonald B, Gabbai FB, Pahl M, Pascual MT, Farkas A, Kaplan RM; Collaborative Group for Treatment of ARF in the ICU. A randomized clinical trial of continuous versus intermittent dialysis for acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 2001;60(3):1154-63. DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.0600031154.x 
  • [273]Uehlinger DE, Jakob SM, Ferrari P, Eichelberger M, Huynh-Do U, Marti HP, Mohaupt MG, Vogt B, Rothen HU, Regli B, Takala J, Frey FJ. Comparison of continuous and intermittent renal replacement therapy for acute renal failure. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2005;20(8):1630-7. DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfh880 
  • [274]John S, Griesbach D, Baumgartel M, Weihprecht H, Schmieder RE, Geiger H. Effects of continuous haemofiltration vs intermittent haemodialysis on systemic haemodynamics and splanchnic regional perfusion in septic shock patients: a prospective, randomized clinical trial. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2001;16(2):320-7. DOI: 10.1093/ndt/16.2.320 
  • [275]Kielstein JT, Kretschmer U, Ernst T, Hafer C, Bahr MJ, Haller H, Fliser D. Efficacy and cardiovascular tolerability of extended dialysis in critically ill patients: a randomized controlled study. Am J Kidney Dis. 2004;43(2):342-9. DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2003.10.021 
  • [276]Schortgen F, Soubrier N, Delclaux C, Thuong M, Girou E, Brun-Buisson C, Lemaire F, Brochard L. Hemodynamic tolerance of intermittent hemodialysis in critically ill patients: usefulness of practice guidelines. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162(1):197-202.
  • [277]Misset B, Timsit JF, Chevret S, Renaud B, Tamion F, Carlet J. A randomized cross-over comparison of the hemodynamic response to intermittent hemodialysis and continuous hemofiltration in ICU patients with acute renal failure. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22(8):742-6. DOI: 10.1007/BF01709515 
  • [278]Faulhaber-Walter R, Hafer C, Jahr N, Vahlbruch J, Hoy L, Haller H, Fliser D, Kielstein JT. The Hannover Dialysis Outcome study: comparison of standard versus intensified extended dialysis for treatment of patients with acute kidney injury in the intensive care unit. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2009;24(7):2179-86. DOI: 10.1093/ndt/gfp035 
  • [279]Bellomo R, Cass A, Cole L, Finfer S, Gallagher M, Lo S, McArthur C, McGuinness S, Myburgh J, Norton R, Scheinkestel C, Su S; RENAL Replacement Therapy Study Investigators. Intensity of continuous renal-replacement therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(17):1627-38. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa0902413 
  • [280]Palevsky PM, Zhang JH, O'Connor TZ, Chertow GM, Crowley ST, Choudhury D, Finkel K, Kellum JA, Paganini E, Schein RM, Smith MW, Swanson KM, Thompson BT, Vijayan A, Watnick S, Star RA, Peduzzi P; VA/NIH Acute Renal Failure Trial Network. Intensity of renal support in critically ill patients with acute kidney injury. N Engl J Med. 2008;359(1):7-20. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa0802639 
  • [281]Bouman CS, Oudemans-Van Straaten HM, Tijssen JG, Zandstra DF, Kesecioglu J. Effects of early high-volume continuous venovenous hemofiltration on survival and recovery of renal function in intensive care patients with acute renal failure: a prospective, randomized trial. Crit Care Med. 2002;30(10):2205-11. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200210000-00005 
  • [282]Ronco C, Bellomo R, Homel P, Brendolan A, Dan M, Piccinni P, La Greca G. Effects of different doses in continuous veno-venous haemofiltration on outcomes of acute renal failure: a prospective randomised trial. Lancet. 2000;356(9223):26-30. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02430-2 
  • [283]Saudan P, Niederberger M, De Seigneux S, Romand J, Pugin J, Perneger T, Martin PY. Adding a dialysis dose to continuous hemofiltration increases survival in patients with acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 2006;70(7):1312-7. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ki.5001705 
  • [284]Schiffl H, Lang SM, Fischer R. Daily hemodialysis and the outcome of acute renal failure. N Engl J Med. 2002;346(5):305-10. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa010877 
  • [285]Tolwani AJ, Campbell RC, Stofan BS, Lai KR, Oster RA, Wille KM. Standard versus high-dose CVVHDF for ICU-related acute renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;19(6):1233-8. DOI: 10.1681/ASN.2007111173 
  • [286]De Vriese AS, Colardyn FA, Philippe JJ, Vanholder RC, De Sutter JH, Lameire NH. Cytokine removal during continuous hemofiltration in septic patients. J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999;10(4):846-53.
  • [287]van Deuren M, van der Meer JW. Hemofiltration in septic patients is not able to alter the plasma concentration of cytokines therapeutically. Intensive Care Med. 2000;26(9):1176-8. DOI: 10.1007/s001340000583 
  • [288]Payen D, Mateo J, Cavaillon JM, Fraisse F, Floriot C, Vicaut E; Hemofiltration and Sepsis Group of the Collège National de Réanimation et de Médecine d'Urgence des Hôpitaux extra-Universitaires. Impact of continuous venovenous hemofiltration on organ failure during the early phase of severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2009;37(3):803-10. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181962316 
  • [289]Hopkins RO, Weaver LK, Pope D, Orme JF, Bigler ED, Larson LV. Neuropsychological sequelae and impaired health status in survivors of severe acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160(1):50-6.
  • [290]Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(18):1301-8. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200005043421801 
  • [291]Amato MB, Barbas CS, Medeiros DM, Magaldi RB, Schettino GP, Lorenzi-Filho G, Kairalla RA, Deheinzelin D, Munoz C, Oliveira R, Takagaki TY, Carvalho CR. Effect of a protective-ventilation strategy on mortality in the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(6):347-54. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199802053380602 
  • [292]Villar J, Kacmarek RM, Perez-Mendez L, Aguirre-Jaime A. A high positive end-expiratory pressure, low tidal volume ventilatory strategy improves outcome in persistent acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomized, controlled trial. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(5):1311-8. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000215598.84885.01 
  • [293]Terragni PP, Rosboch G, Tealdi A, Corno E, Menaldo E, Davini O, Gandini G, Herrmann P, Mascia L, Quintel M, Slutsky AS, Gattinoni L, Ranieri VM. Tidal hyperinflation during low tidal volume ventilation in acute respiratory distress syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175(2):160-6. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200607-915OC 
  • [294]Hager DN, Krishnan JA, Hayden DL, Brower RG; ARDS Clinical Trials Network. Tidal volume reduction in patients with acute lung injury when plateau pressures are not high. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(10):1241-5. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200501-048CP 
  • [295]Bidani A, Tzouanakis AE, Cardenas VJ Jr, Zwischenberger JB. Permissive hypercapnia in acute respiratory failure. JAMA. 1994;272(12):957-62.
  • [296]Hickling KG, Walsh J, Henderson S, Jackson R. Low mortality rate in adult respiratory distress syndrome using low-volume, pressure-limited ventilation with permissive hypercapnia: a prospective study. Crit Care Med. 1994;22(10):1568-78. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199422100-00011 
  • [297]Martin GS, Bernard GR; International Sepsis Forum. Airway and lung in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27 Suppl 1:S63-79.
  • [298]Gattinoni L, Tognoni G, Pesenti A, Taccone P, Mascheroni D, Labarta V, Malacrida R, Di Giulio P, Fumagalli R, Pelosi P, Brazzi L, Latini R; Prone-Supine Study Group. Effect of prone positioning on the survival of patients with acute respiratory failure. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(8):568-73. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa010043 
  • [299]Guerin C, Gaillard S, Lemasson S, Ayzac L, Girard R, Beuret P, Palmier B, Le QV, Sirodot M, Rosselli S, Cadiergue V, Sainty JM, Barbe P, Combourieu E, Debatty D, Rouffineau J, Ezingeard E, Millet O, Guelon D, Rodriguez L, Martin O, Renault A, Sibille JP, Kaidomar M. Effects of systematic prone positioning in hypoxemic acute respiratory failure: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;292(19):2379-87. DOI: 10.1001/jama.292.19.2379 
  • [300]Lundin S, Mang H, Smithies M, Stenqvist O, Frostell C; The European Study Group of Inhaled Nitric Oxide. Inhalation of nitric oxide in acute lung injury: results of a European multicentre study. Intensive Care Med. 1999;25(9):911-9. DOI: 10.1007/s001340050982 
  • [301]Taylor RW, Zimmerman JL, Dellinger RP, Straube RC, Criner GJ, Davis K Jr, Kelly KM, Smith TC, Small RJ; Inhaled Nitric Oxide in ARDS Study Group. Low-dose inhaled nitric oxide in patients with acute lung injury: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2004;291(13):1603-9. DOI: 10.1001/jama.291.13.1603 
  • [302]Sokol J, Jacobs SE, Bohn D. Inhaled nitric oxide for acute hypoxic respiratory failure in children and adults: a meta-analysis. Anesth Analg. 2003;97(4):989-98. DOI: 10.1213/01.ANE.0000078819.48523.26 
  • [303]Esteban A, Alía I, Gordo F, Fernández R, Solsona JF, Vallverdú I, Macías S, Allegue JM, Blanco J, Carriedo D, León M, de la Cal MA, Taboada F, Gonzalez de Velasco J, Palazón E, Carrizosa F, Tomás R, Suarez J, Goldwasser RS; The Spanish Lung Failure Collaborative Group. Extubation outcome after spontaneous breathing trials with T-tube or pressure support ventilation. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;156(2 Pt 1):459-65.
  • [304]Esteban A, Alia I, Tobin MJ, Gil A, Gordo F, Vallverdu I, Alía I, Tobin MJ, Gil A, Gordo F, Vallverdú I, Blanch L, Bonet A, Vázquez A, de Pablo R, Torres A, de La Cal MA, Macías S. Effect of spontaneous breathing trial duration on outcome of attempts to discontinue mechanical ventilation. Spanish Lung Failure Collaborative Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159(2):512-8.
  • [305]Ely EW, Baker AM, Dunagan DP, Burke HL, Smith AC, Kelly PT, Johnson MM, Browder RW, Bowton DL, Haponik EF. Effect on the duration of mechanical ventilation of identifying patients capable of breathing spontaneously. N Engl J Med. 1996;335(25):1864-9. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199612193352502 
  • [306]Bone RC, Fisher CJ Jr, Clemmer TP, Slotman GJ, Metz CA, Balk RA. A controlled clinical trial of high-dose methylprednisolone in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 1987;317(11):653-8.
  • [307]The Veterans Administration Systemic Sepsis Cooperative Study Group. Effect of high-dose glucocorticoid therapy on mortality in patients with clinical signs of systemic sepsis. N Engl J Med. 1987;317(11):659-65.
  • [308]Sprung CL, Annane D, Keh D, Moreno R, Singer M, Freivogel K, Weiss YG, Benbenishty J, Kalenka A, Forst H, Laterre PF, Reinhart K, Cuthbertson BH, Payen D, Briegel J; CORTICUS Study Group. Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med. 2008;358(2):111-24. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa071366 
  • [309]Marik PE, Zaloga GP. Adrenal insufficiency during septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(1):141-5. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200301000-00022 
  • [310]Zaloga GP, Marik P. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal insufficiency. Crit Care Clin. 2001;17(1):25-41. DOI: 10.1016/S0749-0704(05)70150-0 
  • [311]Dunn JF, Nisula BC, Rodbard D. Transport of steroid hormones: binding of 21 endogenous steroids to both testosterone-binding globulin and corticosteroid-binding globulin in human plasma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1981;53(1):58-68. DOI: 10.1210/jcem-53-1-58 
  • [312]Beishuizen A, Thijs LG, Vermes I. Patterns of corticosteroid-binding globulin and the free cortisol index during septic shock and multitrauma. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27(10):1584-91. DOI: 10.1007/s001340101073 
  • [313]Keh D, Boehnke T, Weber-Cartens S, Schulz C, Ahlers O, Bercker S, Volk HD, Doecke WD, Falke KJ, Gerlach H. Immunologic and hemodynamic effects of "low-dose" hydrocortisone in septic shock: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167(4):512-20. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200205-446OC 
  • [314]Ali NA, O'Brien JM Jr, Dungan K, Phillips G, Marsh CB, Lemeshow S, Connors AF Jr, Preiser JC. Glucose variability and mortality in patients with sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2008;36(8):2316-21. DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181810378 
  • [315]Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, LaRosa SP, Dhainaut JF, Lopez-Rodriguez A, Steingrub JS, Garber GE, Helterbrand JD, Ely EW, Fisher CJ Jr; Recombinant human protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) study group. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 2001;344(10):699-709. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200103083441001 
  • [316]Abraham E, Laterre PF, Garg R, Levy H, Talwar D, Trzaskoma BL, François B, Guy JS, Brückmann M, Rea-Neto A, Rossaint R, Perrotin D, Sablotzki A, Arkins N, Utterback BG, Macias WL; Administration of Drotrecogin Alfa (Activated) in Early Stage Severe Sepsis (ADDRESS) Study Group. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) for adults with severe sepsis and a low risk of death. N Engl J Med. 2005;353(13):1332-41. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa050935 
  • [317]Vincent JL, Nadel S, Kutsogiannis DJ, Gibney RT, Yan SB, Wyss VL, Bailey JE, Mitchell CL, Sarwat S, Shinall SM, Janes JM. Drotrecogin alfa (activated) in patients with severe sepsis presenting with purpura fulminans, meningitis, or meningococcal disease: a retrospective analysis of patients enrolled in recent clinical studies. Crit Care. 2005;9(4):R331-43. DOI: 10.1186/cc3538 
  • [318]Oxman AD, Guyatt GH. A consumer's guide to subgroup analyses. Ann Intern Med. 1992;116(1):78-84.
  • [319]Finfer S, Ranieri VM, Thompson BT, Barie PS, Dhainaut JF, Douglas IS, Gårdlund B, Marshall JC, Rhodes A. Design, conduct, analysis and reporting of a multi-national placebo-controlled trial of activated protein C for persistent septic shock. Intensive Care Med. 2008;34(11):1935-47. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-008-1266-6 
  • [320]Levi M, Levy M, Williams MD, Douglas I, Artigas A, Antonelli M, Wyncoll D, Janes J, Booth FV, Wang D, Sundin DP, Macias WL; Xigris and Prophylactic HepaRin Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (XPRESS) Study Group. Prophylactic heparin in patients with severe sepsis treated with drotrecogin alfa (activated). Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(5):483-90. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200612-1803OC 
  • [321]Warren BL, Eid A, Singer P, Pillay SS, Carl P, Novak I, Chalupa P, Atherstone A, Pénzes I, Kübler A, Knaub S, Keinecke HO, Heinrichs H, Schindel F, Juers M, Bone RC, Opal SM; KyberSept Trial Study Group. Caring for the critically ill patient: High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001;286(15):1869-78. DOI: 10.1001/jama.286.15.1869 
  • [322]Kreymann KG, de Heer G, Nierhaus A, Kluge S. Use of polyclonal immunoglobulins as adjunctive therapy for sepsis or septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(12):2677-85. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000295263.12774.97 
  • [323]Laupland KB, Kirkpatrick AW, Delaney A. Polyclonal intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock in critically ill adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(12):2686-92. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000295312.13466.1C 
  • [324]Werdan K, Pilz G, Bujdoso O, Fraunberger P, Neeser G, Schmieder RE, Schmieder RE, Viell B, Marget W, Seewald M, Walger P, Stuttmann R, Speichermann N, Peckelsen C, Kurowski V, Osterhues HH, Verner L, Neumann R, Müller-Werdan U; Score-Based Immunoglobulin Therapy of Sepsis (SBITS) Study Group. Score-based immunoglobulin G therapy of patients with sepsis: the SBITS study. Crit Care Med. 2007;35(12):2693-701. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000295426.37471.79 
  • [325]Heyland DK. Selenium supplementation in critically ill patients: can too much of a good thing be a bad thing? Crit Care. 2007;11(4):153. DOI: 10.1186/cc5975 
  • [326]Forceville X, Laviolle B, Annane D, Vitoux D, Bleichner G, Korach JM, Cantais E, Georges H, Soubirou JL, Combes A, Bellissant E. Effects of high doses of selenium, as sodium selenite, in septic shock: a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind, phase II study. Crit Care. 2007;11(4):R73. DOI: 10.1186/cc5960 
  • [327]Bernard GR, Wheeler AP, Russell JA, Schein R, Summer WR, Steinberg KP, Fulkerson WJ, Wright PE, Christman BW, Dupont WD, Higgins SB, Swindell BB; The Ibuprofen in Sepsis Study Group. The effects of ibuprofen on the physiology and survival of patients with sepsis. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(13):912-8. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199703273361303 
  • [328]Takala J, Ruokonen E, Webster NR, Nielsen MS, Zandstra DF, Vundelinckx G, Hinds CJ. Increased mortality associated with growth hormone treatment in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(11):785-92. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199909093411102 
  • [329]Holcroft JW, Vassar MJ, Weber CJ. Prostaglandin E1 and survival in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. A prospective trial. Ann Surg. 1986;203(4):371-8. DOI: 10.1097/00000658-198604000-00006 
  • [330]Bone RC, Slotman G, Maunder R, Silverman H, Hyers TM, Kerstein MD, Ursprung JJ; Prostaglandin E1 Study Group. Randomized double-blind, multicenter study of prostaglandin E1 in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome. Chest. 1989;96(1):114-9. DOI: 10.1378/chest.96.1.114 
  • [331]Silverman HJ, Slotman G, Bone RC, Maunder R, Hyers TM, Kerstein MD, Ursprung JJ; Prostaglandin E1 Study Group. Effects of prostaglandin E1 on oxygen delivery and consumption in patients with the adult respiratory distress syndrome: Results from the prostaglandin E1 multicenter trial. Chest. 1990;98(2):405-10. DOI: 10.1378/chest.98.2.405 
  • [332]Abraham E, Baughman R, Fletcher E, Heard S, Lamberti J, Levy H, Nelson L, Rumbak M, Steingrub J, Taylor J, Park YC, Hynds JM, Freitag J; TLC C-53 ARDS Study Group. Liposomal prostaglandin E1 (TLC C-53) in acute respiratory distress syndrome: a controlled, randomized, double-blind, multicenter clinical trial. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(8):1478-85. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199908000-00013 
  • [333]Yang S, Zhou M, Koo DJ, Chaudry IH, Wang P. Pentoxifylline prevents the transition from the hyperdynamic to hypodynamic response during sepsis. Am J Physiol. 1999;277(3 Pt 2):H1036-44.
  • [334]Staubach KH, Schroder J, Stuber F, Gehrke K, Traumann E, Zabel P. Effect of pentoxifylline in severe sepsis: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Arch Surg. 1998;133(1):94-100. DOI: 10.1001/archsurg.133.1.94 
  • [335]Lauterbach R, Pawlik D, Kowalczyk D, Ksycínski W, Helwich E, Zembala M. Effect of the immunomodulating agent, pentoxifylline, in the treatment of sepsis in prematurely delivered infants: a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(4):807-14. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199904000-00042 
  • [336]Molnar Z, Shearer E, Lowe D. N-Acetylcysteine treatment to prevent the progression of multisystem organ failure: a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(6):1100-4. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199906000-00028 
  • [337]Zhang P, Bagby GJ, Stoltz DA, Summer WR, Nelson S. Enhancement of peritoneal leukocyte function by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor in rats with abdominal sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(2):315-21. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199802000-00035 
  • [338]Lundblad R, Nesland JM, Giercksky KE. Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor improves survival rate and reduces concentrations of bacteria, endotoxin, tumor necrosis factor, and endothelin-1 in fulminant intra-abdominal sepsis in rats. Crit Care Med. 1996;24(5):820-6. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199605000-00016 
  • [339]Karzai W, von Specht BU, Parent C, Haberstroh J, Wollersen K, Natanson C, Banks SM, Eichacker PQ. G-CSF during Escherichia coli versus Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia in rats has fundamentally different and opposite effects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159(5 Pt 1):1377-82.
  • [340]Heard SO, Fink MP, Gamelli RL, Solomkin JS, Joshi M, Trask AL, Fabian TC, Hudson LD, Gerold KB, Logan ED; The Filgrastim Study Group. Effect of prophylactic administration of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (filgrastim) on the frequency of nosocomial infections in patients with acute traumatic brain injury or cerebral hemorrhage. Crit Care Med. 1998;26(4):748-54. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199804000-00027 
  • [341]Root RK, Lodato RF, Patrick W, Cade JF, Fotheringham N, Milwee S, Vincent JL, Torres A, Rello J, Nelson S; Pneumonia Sepsis Study Group. Multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the use of filgrastim in patients hospitalized with pneumonia and severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 2003;31(2):367-73. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000048629.32625.5D 
  • [342]Pérez J, Dellinger RP; International Sepsis Forum. Other supportive therapies in sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 2001;27(Suppl 1):S116-27.
  • [343]Cade JF. High risk of the critically ill for venous thromboembolism. Crit Care Med. 1982;10(7):448-50. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-198207000-00006 
  • [344]Belch JJ, Lowe GD, Ward AG, Forbes CD, Prentice CR. Prevention of deep vein thrombosis in medical patients by low-dose heparin. Scott Med J. 1981;26(2):115-7.
  • [345]Samama MM, Cohen AT, Darmon JY, Desjardins L, Eldor A, Janbon C, Leizorovicz A, Nguyen H, Olsson CG, Turpie AG, Weisslinger N; Prophylaxis in Medical Patients with Enoxaparin Study Group. A comparison of enoxaparin with placebo for the prevention of venous thromboembolism in acutely ill medical patients. N Engl J Med. 1999;341(11):793-800. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199909093411103 
  • [346]Cestac P, Bagheri H, Lapeyre-Mestre M, Sié P, Fouladi A, Maupas E, Léger P, Fontan B, Massip P, Montastruc JL. Utilisation and safety of low molecular weight heparins: prospective observational study in medical inpatients. Drug Saf. 2003;26(3):197-207. DOI: 10.2165/00002018-200326030-00005 
  • [347]Kreymann KG, Berger MM, Deutz NE, Hiesmayr M, Jolliet P, Kazandjiev G, Nitenberg G, van den Berghe G, Wernerman J; DGEM (German Society for Nutritional Medicine), Ebner C, Hartl W, Heymann C, Spies C; ESPEN (European Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition). ESPEN Guidelines on Enteral Nutrition: Intensive care. Clin Nutr. 2006;25(2):210-23. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2006.01.021 
  • [348]Sandström R, Drott C, Hyltander A, Arfvidsson B, Scherstén T, Wickström I, Lundholm K. The effect of postoperative intravenous feeding (TPN) on outcome following major surgery evaluated in a randomized study. Ann Surg. 1993;217(2):185-95.
  • [349]Koretz RL, Avenell A, Lipman TO, Braunschweig CL, Milne AC. Does enteral nutrition affect clinical outcome? A systematic review of the randomized trials. Am J Gastroenterol. 2007;102(2):412-29; quiz 468. DOI: 10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.01024.x 
  • [350]Peter JV, Moran JL, Phillips-Hughes J. A metaanalysis of treatment outcomes of early enteral versus early parenteral nutrition in hospitalized patients. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(1):213-20; discussion 260-1. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000150960.36228.C0 
  • [351]Barr J, Hecht M, Flavin KE, Khorana A, Gould MK. Outcomes in critically ill patients before and after the implementation of an evidence-based nutritional management protocol. Chest. 2004;125(4):1446-57. DOI: 10.1378/chest.125.4.1446 
  • [352]Petros S, Engelmann L. Enteral nutrition delivery and energy expenditure in medical intensive care patients. Clin Nutr. 2006;25(1):51-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.clnu.2005.08.013 
  • [353]Simpson F, Doig GS. Parenteral vs enteral nutrition in the critically ill patient: a meta-analysis of trials using the intention to treat principle. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31(1):12-23. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-004-2511-2 
  • [354]Druml W, Fischer M, Ratheiser K. Use of intravenous lipids in critically ill patients with sepsis without and with hepatic failure. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1998;22(4):217-23. DOI: 10.1177/0148607198022004217 
  • [355]Stoner HB, Little RA, Frayn KN, Elebute AE, Tresadern J, Gross E. The effect of sepsis on the oxidation of carbohydrate and fat. Br J Surg. 1983;70(1):32-5. DOI: 10.1002/bjs.1800700113 
  • [356]Battistella FD, Widergren JT, Anderson JT, Siepler JK, Weber JC, MacColl K. A prospective, randomized trial of intravenous fat emulsion administration in trauma victims requiring total parenteral nutrition. J Trauma. 1997;43(1):52-8; discussion 58-60. DOI: 10.1097/00005373-199707000-00013 
  • [357]Bertolini G, Iapichino G, Radrizzani D, Facchini R, Simini B, Bruzzone P, Zanforlin G, Tognoni G. Early enteral immunonutrition in patients with severe sepsis: results of an interim analysis of a randomized multicentre clinical trial. Intensive Care Med. 2003;29(5):834-40.
  • [358]Galbán C, Montejo JC, Mesejo A, Marco P, Celaya S, Sánchez-Segura JM, Farré M, Bryg DJ. An immune-enhancing enteral diet reduces mortality rate and episodes of bacteremia in septic intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(3):643-8. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200003000-00007 
  • [359]Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Drover JW, Gramlich L, Dodek P; Canadian Critical Care Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for nutrition support in mechanically ventilated, critically ill adult patients. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2003;27(5):355-73. DOI: 10.1177/0148607103027005355 
  • [360]Radrizzani D, Bertolini G, Facchini R, Simini B, Bruzzone P, Zanforlin G, Tognoni G, Iapichino G. Early enteral immunonutrition vs. parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients without severe sepsis: a randomized clinical trial. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32(8):1191-8. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-006-0238-y 
  • [361]Pontes-Arruda A, Aragão AM, Albuquerque JD. Effects of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in mechanically ventilated patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(9):2325-33. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000234033.65657.B6 
  • [362]Gadek JE, DeMichele SJ, Karlstad MD, Pacht ER, Donahoe M, Albertson TE, Van Hoozen C, Wennberg AK, Nelson JL, Noursalehi M; Enteral Nutrition in ARDS Study Group. Effect of enteral feeding with eicosapentaenoic acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidants in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(8):1409-20. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199908000-00001 
  • [363]Singer P, Theilla M, Fisher H, Gibstein L, Grozovski E, Cohen J. Benefit of an enteral diet enriched with eicosapentaenoic acid and gamma-linolenic acid in ventilated patients with acute lung injury. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(4):1033-8. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000206111.23629.0A 
  • [364]Bakalar B, Duska F, Pachl J, Fric M, Otahal M, Pazout J, Andel M. Parenterally administered dipeptide alanyl-glutamine prevents worsening of insulin sensitivity in multiple-trauma patients. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(2):381-6. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000196829.30741.D4 
  • [365]Déchelotte P, Hasselmann M, Cynober L, Allaouchiche B, Coëffier M, Hecketsweiler B, Merle V, Mazerolles M, Samba D, Guillou YM, Petit J, Mansoor O, Colas G, Cohendy R, Barnoud D, Czernichow P, Bleichner G. L-alanyl-L-glutamine dipeptide-supplemented total parenteral nutrition reduces infectious complications and glucose intolerance in critically ill patients: the French controlled, randomized, double-blind, multicenter study. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(3):598-604. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000201004.30750.D1 
  • [366]Goeters C, Wenn A, Mertes N, Wempe C, Van Aken H, Stehle P, Bone HG. Parenteral L-alanyl-L-glutamine improves 6-month outcome in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2002;30(9):2032-7. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200209000-00013 
  • [367]Heyland DK, Dhaliwal R, Day AG, Muscedere J, Drover J, Suchner U, Cook D; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. REducing Deaths due to OXidative Stress (The REDOXS Study): Rationale and study design for a randomized trial of glutamine and antioxidant supplementation in critically-ill patients. Proc Nutr Soc. 2006;65(3):250-63. DOI: 10.1079/PNS2006505 
  • [368]Cook DJ, Reeve BK, Guyatt GH, Heyland DK, Griffith LE, Buckingham L, Tryba M. Stress ulcer prophylaxis in critically ill patients: Resolving discordant meta-analyses. JAMA. 1996;275(4):308-14.
  • [369]Basso N, Bagarani M, Materia A, Fiorani S, Lunardi P, Speranza V. Cimetidine and antacid prophylaxis of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in high risk patients: Controlled, randomized trial. Am J Surg. 1981;141(3):339-41. DOI: 10.1016/0002-9610(81)90191-4 
  • [370]Cook D, Guyatt G, Marshall J, Leasa D, Fuller H, Hall R, Peters S, Rutledge F, Griffith L, McLellan A, Wood G, Kirby A; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. A comparison of sucralfate and ranitidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients requiring mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med. 1998;338(12):791-7. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199803193381203 
  • [371]Conrad SA, Gabrielli A, Margolis B, Quartin A, Hata JS, Frank WO, Bagin RG, Rock JA, Hepburn B, Laine L. Randomized, double-blind comparison of immediate-release omeprazole oral suspension versus intravenous cimetidine for the prevention of upper gastrointestinal bleeding in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med. 2005;33(4):760-5. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000157751.92249.32 
  • [372]Levy MJ, Seelig CB, Robinson NJ, Ranney JE. Comparison of omeprazole and ranitidine for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Dig Dis Sci. 1997;42(6):1255-9. DOI: 10.1023/A:1018810325370 
  • [373]Dial S, Alrasadi K, Manoukian C, Huang A, Menzies D. Risk of Clostridium difficile diarrhea among hospital inpatients prescribed proton pump inhibitors: cohort and case-control studies. CMAJ. 2004;171(1):33-8. DOI: 10.1503/cmaj.1040876 
  • [374]Dial S, Delaney JA, Barkun AN, Suissa S. Use of gastric acid-suppressive agents and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile-associated disease. JAMA. 2005;294(23):2989-95. DOI: 10.1001/jama.294.23.2989 
  • [375]Lau JY, Sung JJ, Lee KK, Yung MY, Wong SK, Wu JC, Chan FK, Ng EK, You JH, Lee CW, Chan AC, Chung SC. Effect of intravenous omeprazole on recurrent bleeding after endoscopic treatment of bleeding peptic ulcers. N Engl J Med. 2000;343(5):310-6. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200008033430501 
  • [376]MacLaren R, Jarvis CL, Fish DN. Use of enteral nutrition for stress ulcer prophylaxis. Ann Pharmacother. 2001;35(12):1614-23. DOI: 10.1345/aph.1A083 
  • [377]Cooper DJ, Walley KR, Wiggs BR, Russell JA. Bicarbonate does not improve hemodynamics in critically ill patients who have lactic acidosis: A prospective, controlled clinical study. Ann Intern Med. 1990;112(7):492-8.
  • [378]Mathieu D, Neviere R, Billard V, Fleyfel M, Wattel F. Effects of bicarbonate therapy on hemodynamics and tissue oxygenation in patients with lactic acidosis: a prospective, controlled clinical study. Crit Care Med. 1991;19(11):1352-6. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199111000-00008 
  • [379]Hébert PC, Wells G, Blajchman MA, Marshall J, Martin C, Pagliarello G, Tweeddale M, Schweitzer I, Yetisir E; Transfusion Requirements in Critical Care Investigators; Canadian Critical Care Trials Group. A multicenter, randomized, controlled clinical trial of transfusion requirements in critical care. N Engl J Med. 1999;340(6):409-17. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM199902113400601 
  • [380]Marik PE, Sibbald WJ. Effect of stored-blood transfusion on oxygen delivery in patients with sepsis. JAMA. 1993;269(23):3024-9.
  • [381]Lorente JA, Landín L, De Pablo R, Renes E, Rodríguez-Díaz R, Liste D. Effects of blood transfusion on oxygen transport variables in severe sepsis. Crit Care Med. 1993;21(9):1312-8. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199309000-00013 
  • [382]Corwin HL, Gettinger A, Fabian TC, May A, Pearl RG, Heard S, An R, Bowers PJ, Burton P, Klausner MA, Corwin MJ; EPO Critical Care Trials Group. Efficacy and safety of epoetin alfa in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 2007;357(10):965-76. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa071533 
  • [383]Gajic O, Rana R, Winters JL, Yilmaz M, Mendez JL, Rickman OB, O'Byrne MM, Evenson LK, Malinchoc M, DeGoey SR, Afessa B, Hubmayr RD, Moore SB. Transfusion-related acute lung injury in the critically ill: prospective nested case-control study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(9):886-91. DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200702-271OC 
  • [384]Vorstand und Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesärztekammer. Leitlinien zur Therapie mit Blutkomponenten und Plasmaderivaten. Köln: Deutscher Ärzte-Verlag; 2003. Available from: http://www.bundesaerztekammer.de/downloads/Blutkomponentenpdf.pdf 
  • [385]Girard TD, Kress JP, Fuchs BD, Thomason JW, Schweickert WD, Pun BT, Taichman DB, Dunn JG, Pohlman AS, Kinniry PA, Jackson JC, Canonico AE, Light RW, Shintani AK, Thompson JL, Gordon SM, Hall JB, Dittus RS, Bernard GR, Ely EW. Efficacy and safety of a paired sedation and ventilator weaning protocol for mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care (Awakening and Breathing Controlled trial): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2008;371(9607):126-34. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60105-1 
  • [386]Brook AD, Ahrens TS, Schaiff R, Prentice D, Sherman G, Shannon W, Kollef MH. Effect of a nursing-implemented sedation protocol on the duration of mechanical ventilation. Crit Care Med. 1999;27(12):2609-15. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199912000-00001 
  • [387]Kress JP, Pohlman AS, O'Connor MF, Hall JB. Daily interruption of sedative infusions in critically ill patients undergoing mechanical ventilation. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(20):1471-7. DOI: 10.1056/NEJM200005183422002 
  • [388]Martin J, Bäsell K, Bürkle H, Hommel J, Huth G, Kessler P, Kretz FJ, Putensen C, Quintel M, Tonner P, Tryba M, Scholz J, Schüttler J, Wappler F, Spies C. Analgesie und Sedierung in der Intensivmedizin - Kurzversion. Anästhesiol Intensivmed. 2005;46(1):S1-S20. Available from: http://www.bda.de/downloads/Leitlinie-Analgosedierung.pdf 
  • [389]Payen JF, Bru O, Bosson JL, Lagrasta A, Novel E, Deschaux I, Lavagne P, Jacquot C. Assessing pain in critically ill sedated patients by using a behavioral pain scale. Crit Care Med. 2001;29(12):2258-63. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200112000-00004 
  • [390]Richman PS, Baram D, Varela M, Glass PS. Sedation during mechanical ventilation: a trial of benzodiazepine and opiate in combination. Crit Care Med. 2006;34(5):1395-401. DOI: 10.1097/01.CCM.0000215454.50964.F8 
  • [391]Wagner RL, White PF, Kan PB, Rosenthal MH, Feldman D. Inhibition of adrenal steroidogenesis by the anesthetic etomidate. N Engl J Med. 1984;310(22):1415-21.
  • [392]den Brinker M, Joosten KF, Liem O, de Jong FH, Hop WC, Hazelzet JA, van Dijk M, Hokken-Koelega AC. Adrenal insufficiency in meningococcal sepsis: bioavailable cortisol levels and impact of interleukin-6 levels and intubation with etomidate on adrenal function and mortality. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005;90(9):5110-7. DOI: 10.1210/jc.2005-1107 
  • [393]Malerba G, Romano-Girard F, Cravoisy A, Dousset B, Nace L, Lévy B, Bollaert PE. Risk factors of relative adrenocortical deficiency in intensive care patients needing mechanical ventilation. Intensive Care Med. 2005;31(3):388-92. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-004-2550-8 
  • [394]Ray DC, McKeown DW. Effect of induction agent on vasopressor and steroid use, and outcome in patients with septic shock. Crit Care. 2007;11(3):R56. DOI: 10.1186/cc5916 
  • [395]Rossiter A, Souney PF, McGowan S, Carvajal P. Pancuronium-induced prolonged neuromuscular blockade. Crit Care Med. 1991;19(12):1583-7. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199112000-00023 
  • [396]Partridge BL, Abrams JH, Bazemore C, Rubin R. Prolonged neuromuscular blockade after long-term infusion of vecuronium bromide in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med. 1990;18(10):1177-9. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199010000-00025 
  • [397]Vanderheyden BA, Reynolds HN, Gerold KB, Emanuele T. Prolonged paralysis after long-term vecuronium infusion. Crit Care Med. 1992;20(2):304-7. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199202000-00019 
  • [398]Meyer KC, Prielipp RC, Grossman JE, Coursin DB. Prolonged weakness after infusion of atracurium in two intensive care unit patients. Anesth Analg. 1994;78(4):772-4. DOI: 10.1213/00000539-199404000-00027 
  • [399]Manthous CA, Chatila W. Prolonged weakness after the withdrawal of atracurium. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;150(5 Pt 1):1441-3.
  • [400]Prielipp RC, Coursin DB, Scuderi PE, Bowton DL, Ford SR, Cardenas VJ Jr, Vender J, Howard D, Casale EJ, Murray MJ. Comparison of the infusion requirements and recovery profiles of vecuronium and cisatracurium 51W89 in intensive care unit patients. Anesth Analg. 1995;81(1):3-12. DOI: 10.1097/00000539-199507000-00002 
  • [401]Lagneau F, D'Honneur G, Plaud B, Mantz J, Gillart T, Duvaldestin P, Marty J, Clyti N, Pourriat JL. A comparison of two depths of prolonged neuromuscular blockade induced by cisatracurium in mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2002;28(12):1735-41. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-002-1508-y 
  • [402]Heyland DK, Hopman W, Coo H, Tranmer J, McColl MA. Long-term health-related quality of life in survivors of sepsis. Short Form 36: a valid and reliable measure of health-related quality of life. Crit Care Med. 2000;28(11):3599-605. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200011000-00006 
  • [403]Korosec Jagodic H, Jagodic K, Podbregar M. Long-term outcome and quality of life of patients treated in surgical intensive care: a comparison between sepsis and trauma. Crit Care. 2006;10(5):R134. DOI: 10.1186/cc5047 
  • [404]Granja C, Dias C, Costa-Pereira A, Sarmento A. Quality of life of survivors from severe sepsis and septic shock may be similar to that of others who survive critical illness. Crit Care. 2004;8(2):R91-8. DOI: 10.1186/cc2818 
  • [405]Bolton CF, Gilbert JJ, Hahn AF, Sibbald WJ. Polyneuropathy in critically ill patients. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1984;47(11):1223-31. DOI: 10.1136/jnnp.47.11.1223 
  • [406]Tepper M, Rakic S, Haas JA, Woittiez AJ. Incidence and onset of critical illness polyneuropathy in patients with septic shock. Neth J Med. 2000;56(6):211-4. DOI: 10.1016/S0300-2977(00)00019-X 
  • [407]Schelling G. Post-traumatic stress disorder in somatic disease: lessons from critically ill patients. Prog Brain Res. 2008;167:229-37. DOI: 10.1016/S0079-6123(07)67016-2 
  • [408]Davydow DS, Gifford JM, Desai SV, Bienvenu OJ, Needham DM. Depression in general intensive care unit survivors: a systematic review. Intensive Care Med. 2009;35(5):796-809. DOI: 10.1007/s00134-009-1396-5 
  • [409]Graf J, Doig GS, Cook DJ, Vincent JL, Sibbald WJ. Randomized, controlled clinical trials in sepsis: has methodological quality improved over time? Crit Care Med. 2002;30(2):461-72. DOI: 10.1097/00003246-200202000-00032 
  • [410]Deutsche Sepsis-Hilfe e.V. Sepsis Information für Patienten & Angehörige. 3 ed. Jena: Deutsche Sepsis-Hilfe e.V.; 2009. Available from: http://www.sepsis-gesellschaft.de/DSG/Deutsch/Was+ist+Sepsis%3F/Informationen+fuer+Laien/Patientenbroschuere?sid=x6l4xfz0uT2LruJvxg0rNM&iid=1 
  • [411]Gramm HJ, Hannemann L, Reinhart K, Lode H. Sepsis: ein Begriff im Wandel: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen der Diagnose anhand klinischer Kriterien [Sepsis: a conception in change: Possibilities and limitations of diagnosis based on clinical criteria]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 1995;120(14):498-502.
  • [412]Mehta RL, Kellum JA, Shah SV, Molitoris BA, Ronco C, Warnock DG, Levin A; Acute Kidney Injury Network. Acute Kidney Injury Network: report of an initiative to improve outcomes in acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 2007;11(2):R31. DOI: 10.1186/cc5713 
  • [413]Ely EW, Bennett PA, Bowton DL, Murphy SM, Florance AM, Haponik EF. Large scale implementation of a respiratory therapist-driven protocol for ventilator weaning. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159(2):439-46.
  文献评价指标  
  下载次数:5次 浏览次数:12次