The history of Chagas disease

Particle and Fibre Toxicology

Dietmar Steverding¹ 

[1] BioMedical Research Centre, Norwich Medical School, Norwich Research Park, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK

关键词: Trypanosoma cruzi;    History;    American trypanosomiasis;    Chagas disease;   

Others  :  1183562
DOI  :  10.1186/1756-3305-7-317

 received in 2014-05-20, accepted in 2014-07-06,  发布年份 2014

【 摘 要 】

The ancestor of Trypanosome cruzi was probably introduced to South American via bats approximately 7-10 million years ago. When the first humans arrived in the New World, a sylvatic cycle of Chagas disease was then already well established. Paleoparasitological data suggests that human American trypanosomiasis originated in the Andean area when people founded the first settlements in the coastal region of the Atacama Desert. Identification of T. cruzi as the etiological agent and triatome bugs as the transmission vector of Chagas disease occurred within a few years at the beginning of the 20^th century. History also teaches us that human activity leading to environmental changes, in particular deforestation, is the main cause for the spread of Chagas disease. Recently, migration of T. cruzi-infected patients has led to a distribution of Chagas disease from Latin America to non-endemic countries in Europe, North America and western Pacific region.

【 授权许可】

   
2014 Steverding; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]World Health Organization: Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis). World Health Organ Fact Sheet 2014., 340http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs340/en/ webcite
• [2]Bern C, Kjos S, Yabsley MJ, Montgomery SP: Trypanosoma cruzi and Chagas’ disease in the United States. Clin Microbiol Rev 2011, 24:655-681.
• [3]Cantey PT, Stramer SL, Townsend RL, Kamel H, Ofafa K, Todd CW, Currier M, Hand S, Varnado W, Dotson E, Hall C, Jett PL, Montgomery SP: The United States Trypanosoma cruzi infection study: evidence for vector-borne transmission of the parasite that causes Chagas disease among United States blood donors. Transfusion 2012, 52:1922-1930.
• [4]Myles MA: American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas’ disease). In Manson’s Tropical Diseases. 22nd edition. Edited by Cook GC, Zumla AI. London: W.B. Elsevier; 2009:1327-1340.
• [5]Barrett MP, Bruchmore RJS, Stich A, Lazzari JO, Frash AC, Cazzulo JJ, Krishna S: The trypanosomiasis. Lancet 2003, 362:1469-1480.
• [6]Blum JA, Zellweger MJ, Buri C, Hatz C: Cardiac involvement in African and American trypanosomiases. Lancet Infect Dis 2008, 8:631-641.
• [7]Zingales B, Miles MA, Campbell DA, Tibayrenc M, Macedo AM, Teixeira MMG, Schijman AG, Llewellyn MS, Lages-Silva E, Machado CR, Andrade SG, Sturm NR: The revised Trypanosoma cruzi subspecies nomenclature: rationale, epidemiological relevance and research applications. Infect Genet Evol 2012, 12:240-253.
• [8]Steverding D: The history of African trypanosomiasis. Parasit Vectors 2008, 1:3.
• [9]Tamm E, Kivisild T, Reidla M, Metspalu M, Smith DG, Mulligan CJ, Bravi CM, Rickards O, Martinez-Labarga C, Khusnutdinova EK, Fedorova SA, Golubenko MV, Stepanov VA, Gubina MA, Zhadanov SI, Ossipova LP, Damba L, Voevoda MI, Dipierri JE, Villems R, Malhi RS: Beringian standstill and spread of native American founders. PLoS One 2007, 9:e829.
• [10]Stevens JR, Noyes HA, Dover GA, Gibson WC: The ancient and divergent origins of the human pathogenic trypanosomes, Trypanosoma brucei and T cruzi. Parasitol 1999, 118:107-116.
• [11]Hamilton PB, Teixeira MMG, Stevens JR: The evolution of Trypanosoma cruzi: the ‘bat seeding’ hypothesis. Trends Parasitol 2012, 28:136-141.
• [12]Cavazzana M Jr, Marcili A, Lima L, da Silva FM, Junqueira ÂC, Veludo HH, Viola LB, Campaner M, Nunes VL, Paiva F, Coura JR, Camargo EP, Teixeira MMG: Phylogeographical, ecological and biological patterns shown by nuclear (ssrRNA and gGAPDH) and mitochondrial (Cyt b) genes of trypanosomes of the subgenus Schizotrypanum parasitic in Brazilian bats. Int J Parasitol 2010, 40:345-355.
• [13]Hamilton PB, Stevens JR, Gaunt MW, Gidley J, Gibson WC: Trypanosomes are monophyletic: evidence from genes for glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase and small subunit ribosomal RNA. Int J Parasitol 2004, 34:1393-1404.
• [14]Hamilton PB, Gibson WC, Stevens JR: Patterns of co-evolution between trypanosomes and their hosts deduced from ribosomal RNA and protein-coding gene phylogenies. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2007, 44:15-25.
• [15]Machado CA, Ayala FJ: Nucleotide sequences provide evidence of genetic exchange among distantly related lineages of Trypanosoma cruzi. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001, 98:7396-7401.
• [16]Lewis MD, Llewellyn MS, Yeo M, Acosta N, Gaunt MW, Miles MA: Recent, independent and anthropogenic origins of Trypanosoma cruzi hybrids. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011, 5:e1363.
• [17]Baker JR, Miles MA, Godfrey DG, Barrett TV: Biochemical characterization of some species of Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanosoma) from bats (Microchiroptera). Am J Trop Med Hyg 1978, 27:483-491.
• [18]Lima L, Maia da Silva F, Neves L, Attias M, Takata CSA, Campaner M, de Souza W, Hamilton PB, Teixeira MMG: Evolutionary insights from bat trypanosomes: morphological, developmental and phylogenetic evidence of a new species, Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) erneyi sp. nov., in African bats closely related to Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi and allied species. Protist 2012, 163:856-872.
• [19]Lima L, Espinosa-Álvarez O, Hamilton PB, Neves L, Takata CSA, Campaner M, Attias M, de Souza W, Camargo EP, Teixeira MMG: Trypanosoma livingstonei: a new species from African bats supports the bat seeding hypothesis for the Trypanosoma cruzi clade. Parasit Vectors 2013, 6:221.
• [20]Hamilton PB, Cruickshank C, Stevens JR, Teixeira MMG, Mathews F: Parasites reveal movement of bats between the new and old worlds. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2012, 63:521-526.
• [21]Lisboa CV, Pinho AP, Herrera HM, Gerhardt M, Cupolillo E, Jansen AM: Trypanosoma cruzi (Kinetoplastida, Trypanosomatidae) genotypes in neotropical bats in Brazil. Vet Parasitol 2008, 156:314-318.
• [22]Ramírez JD, Tapia-Calle G, Muñoz-Cruz G, Poveda C, Rendón LM, Hincapié E, Guhl F: Trypanosome species in neo-tropical bats: biological, evolutionary and epidemiological implications. Infect Genet Evol 2014, 22:250-256.
• [23]Marcili A, Lima L, Cavazzana MJR, Junqueira ACV, Veludo HH, Maia da Silva F, Campaner M, Paiva F, Nunes VLB, Teixeira MMG: A new genotype of Trypanosoma cruzi associated with bats evidenced by phylogenetic analyses using SSU rDNA, cytochrome b and Histone H2B genes and genotyping based on ITS1 rDNA. Parasitology 2009, 136:641-655.
• [24]Stadelmann B, Lin LK, Kunz TH, Ruedi M: Molecular phylogeny of new world Myotis (Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear DNA genes. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2007, 43:32-48.
• [25]Flores-López CA, Machado CA: Analyses of 32 loci clarify phylogenetic relationships among Trypanosoma cruzi lineages and support a single hybridization prior to human contact. PLoS Trop Negl Dis 2011, 5:e1272.
• [26]Aufderheide AC, Salo W, Madden M, Streitz J, Buikstra J, Guhl F, Arriaza B, Renier C, Wittmers LE Jr, Fornaciari G, Allison M: A 9,000-year record of Chagas’ disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004, 101:2034-2039.
• [27]Araújo A, Jansen AM, Reinhard K, Ferreira LF: Paleoparasitology of Chagas disease – a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2009, 104(Suppl. I):9-16.
• [28]Fernandes A, Iñiguez AM, Lima VS, Mendonça de Souza SMF, Ferreira LF, Vicente ACP, Jansen AM: Pre-Columbian Chagas disease in Brazil: Trypanosoma cruzi I in the archaeological remains of a human in Peruaçu Valley, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2008, 103:514-516.
• [29]Lima VS, Iniguez AM, Otsuki K, Ferreira LF, Araújo A, Vicente ACP, Jansen AM: Chagas disease in ancient hunter-gatherer population, Brazil. Emerg Infect Dis 2008, 14:1001-1002.
• [30]Rothhammer F, Allison MJ, Núñez L, Standen V, Arriaza B: Chagas’ disease in pre-Columbian South America. Am J Phys Anthropol 1985, 68:495-498.
• [31]Diaz JCP, Schofield CJ: History of Chagas Disease as a Public Health Problem in Latin America. In Emerging Chagas Disease. Edited by Teixeira A, Vinaud M, Castro AM. Sharjah: Benthan Science Publisher; 2011:1-9.
• [32]Ferreira LF, Jansen AM, Araújo A: Chagas disease in prehistory. An Acad Bras Cienc 2011, 83:1041-1044.
• [33]Walsh JF, Molyneux DH, Birley MH: Deforestation: effects on vector-borne disease. Parasitology 1993, 106(Suppl):S55-S75.
• [34]Briceño-León R: Chagas disease and globalization of the Amazon. Cad Saude Publica 2007, 23(Suppl 1):S33-S40.
• [35]Pimenta MD: Noticias do que he o achaque do bicho, diffiniçam do seu crestameto, subimento corrupçaõ, sinaes, & cura atè, o quinto grao, ou intensaõ delle, suas differenças, & coplicaçoés, com que se ajunta. Lisbon: Miguel Manescal; 1707.
• [36]Meneghelli UG: Miguel Dias Pimenta (1661-1715) e a história do megaesôfago e do megacólon chagásicos. Arg Gastroenterol 1996, 33:115-121.
• [37]Miles MA: The discovery of Chagas disease: progress and prejudice. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2004, 18:247-260.
• [38]Ferreira LG: Erário mineral dividido em doze tratados. Dedicado, e oferecido à puríssima, e sereníssima virgem Nossa Senhora da Conceiçaõ. Lisbon: Miguel Rodrigues; 1735.
• [39]von Spix JB, von Martius CFP: Reise in Brasilien auf Befehl Sr. Majestät Maximilian Joseph I. Königs von Baiern in den Jahren 1817 bis 1820 gemacht und beschrieben. München: M. Lindauer; 1823-1831.
• [40]Kidder DP, Fletcher JC: Brazil and the Brazilians, Portrayed in Historical and Descriptive Sketches. Philadelphia: Childs & Peterson; 1857.
• [41]Langgaard TJH: Diccionario de medicina domestica e popular. Rio de Janeiro: Eduardo & Henrique Laemmert; 1865.
• [42]Guerra F: American trypanosomiasis. an historical and a human lesson. J Trop Med Hyg 1970, 73:83-104.
• [43]Darwin C: Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Various Countries Visited by H.M.S. Beagle, under the Command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N. from 1832 to 1836. London: Henry Colburn; 1839.
• [44]Chagas C: Nova tripanozomiaze humana. Estudos sobre a morfolojia e o ciclo evolutivo de Schizotrypanum cruzi n. gen., n. sp., ajente etiolojico de nova entidade morbida do homem. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1909, 1:159-218.
• [45]Chagas C: Neue Trypanosomen: Vorläufige Mitteilung. Arch Schiffs Trop Hyg 1909, 13:120-122.
• [46]Prata A: Evolution of the clinical and epidemiological knowledge about Chagas disease 90 years after its discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1999, 94(Suppl I):81-88.
• [47]de Lana M, Chiari CA, Chiari E, Morel CM, Gonçalves AM, Romanha AJ: Characterization of two isolates of Trypanosoma cruzi obtained from the patient Berenice, the first human case of Chagas’ disease described by Carlos Chagas in 1909. Parasitol Res 1996, 82:257-260.
• [48]Chagas C: Sobre um tripanossoma do tatu, Tatusia novemcincta, transmitido pela Triatoma geniculata Latr. (1811). possibilidade de ser o tatu um depositário do Trypanosoma cruzi no mundo exterior . Brazil Med 1811, 26:305-306.
• [49]Morel CM: Chagas disease, from discovery to control – and beyond: history, myths and lessons to take home. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1999, 94(Suppl I):3-16.
• [50]Kropf SP, Sá MR: The discovery of Trypanosoma cruzi and Chagas disease (1908-1909): tropical medicine in Brazil. Hist Cienc Saude Manguinhos 2009, 16(supl 1):13-34.
• [51]Vianna G: Contribuição para o estudo da anatomia patolojica da “Molestia de Carlos Chagas”. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1911, 3:276-294.
• [52]Brumpt E: Le Trypanosoma cruzi évolue chez Conorhinus megistus, Cimex lectularis, Cimex boueti et Ornithodorus moubata. Cycle évolutif de ce parasite. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1912, 5:360-367.
• [53]Lewinsohn R: Prophet in his own country. Carlos Chagas and the nobel prize. Perspect Biol Med 2003, 46:532-549.
• [54]Mazza S: Casos agudos benignos de enfermedad de Chagas comprobados en la Provincia de Jujuy. MEPRA 1934, 17:3-11.
• [55]Mazza S: Nota sobre el primer centenar de formas agudas de enfermedad de Chagas comprobadas en la República por la Misión de Estudios de Patología Regional Argentina. Prensa Med Argent 1936, 1936(23):1979-1981.
• [56]Gürtler RE, Diotaiuti L, Kitron U: Commentary: Chagas disease: 100 years since the discovery and lessons for the future. Int J Epidemiol 2008, 37:698-701.
• [57]Coura JR, de Castro SL: A critical review on Chagas disease chemotherapy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2002, 97:3-24.
• [58]Steverding D: The development of drugs for treatment of sleeping sickness: a historical review. Parasit Vectors 2010, 3:15.
• [59]Nussenzweig V, Sonntag R, Biancalana A, Pedreira de Freitas JL, Amato Neto V, Kloetzel J: Ação de corantes tri-fenil-metânicos sobre o Trypanosoma cruzi in vitro. Emprego da violeta de genciana na profilaxia da transmissão da moléstia de Chagas por transfusão de sangue. O Hosp 1953, 44:731-744.
• [60]Dias JCP, Schofield CJ: The evolution of Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis) control after 90 years since Carlos Chagas discovery. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 1999, 94(Suppl I):103-121.
• [61]Dias JCP, Silveira AC, Schofield CJ: The impact of Chagas disease control in Latin America – a review. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2002, 97:603-612.
• [62]Pereira PCM, Navarro EC: Challenges and perspectives of Chagas disease: a review. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 2013, 19:34.
• [63]Hashimoto K, Schofield CJ: Elimination of Rhodnius proxilus in Central America. Parasit Vectors 2012, 5:45.
• [64]Monteiro WM, Magalhães LKC, de Sá ARN, Gomes ML, Toledo MJO, Borges L, Pires I, Guerra JAO, Silveira H, Barbosa MGV: Trypanosoma cruzi IV causing outbreaks of acute Chagas disease and infections by different haplotypes in the Western Brazilian Amazonia. PLoS One 2012, 7:e41284.
• [65]de Souza-Lima RC, Barbosa MGV, Coura JR, Arcanjo ARL, Nascimento AS, Ferreira JMBB, Magalhães LK, de Albuquerque BC, Araújo GAN, Guerra JAO: Outbreak of acute Chagas disease associated with oral transmission in the Rio Negro region, Brazilian Amazon. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2013, 46:510-514.
• [66]Yoshida N, Tyler KM, Llewellyn MS: Invasion mechanisms among emerging food-borne protozoan parasites. Trends Parasitol 2011, 27:459-466.
• [67]Samuels AM, Clark EH, Galdos-Cardenas G, Wiegand RE, Ferrufino L, Menacho S, Gil J, Spicer J, Budde J, Levy MZ, Bozo RW, Gilman RH, Bern C, the Working Group on Chagas Disease in Bolivia and Peru: Epidemiology of and impact of insecticide spraying on Chagas disease in communities in the Bolivian Chaco. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013, 7:e2358.
• [68]Germano MD, Roca Acevedo G, Mougabure Cueto GA, Toloza AC, Vassena CV, Picollo MI: New findings of insecticide resistance in Triatoma infestans (Heteroptera: Reduviidae) from the Gran Chaco. J Med Entomol 2010, 47:1077-1081.
• [69]Secretaria de Vigilância em Saúde, Ministério da Saúde: Consenso brasileiro em doença de Chagas. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2005, 38(Supl III):7-29.
• [70]Bern C, Montgomery SP, Herwaldt BL, Rassi A Jr, Marin-Neto JA, Dantas RO, Maguire JH, Acquatella H, Morillo C, Kirchhoff LV, Gilman RH, Reyes PA, Salvatella R, Moore AC: Evaluation and treatment of chagas disease in the United States: a systematic review. J Am Med Assoc 2007, 298:2171-2181.
• [71]Castillo-Riquelme M, Guhl F, Turriago B, Pinto N, Rosas F, Martínez MF, Fox-Rushby J, Davies C, Campbell-Lendrum D: The costs of preventing and treating chagas disease in Colombia. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008, 2:e336.
• [72]Schmunis GA, Yadon ZE: Chagas disease: a Latin America health problem becoming a world health problem. Acta Trop 2010, 115:14-21.
• [73]Strasen J, Williams T, Ertl G, Zoller T, Stich A, Ritter O: Epidemiology of Chagas disease in Europe: many calculations, little knowledge. Clin Res Cardiol 2014, 103:1-10.