Dose and type of crystalloid fluid therapy in adult hospitalized patients

Perioperative Medicine

AB Johan Groeneveld¹  Can Ince¹  Annemieke Smorenberg¹ 

[1] Department of Intensive Care, Erasmus Medical Centre, ‘s-Gravendijkwal 230, 3015, CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

关键词: Hypertonic saline;    Ringer’s lactate;    Normal saline;    Fluid resuscitation;    Hypovolemia;    Shock;   

Others  :  816376
DOI  :  10.1186/2047-0525-2-17

 received in 2012-12-04, accepted in 2013-07-04,  发布年份 2013

【 摘 要 】

Objective

In this narrative review, an overview is given of the pros and cons of various crystalloid fluids used for infusion during initial resuscitation or maintenance phases in adult hospitalized patients. Special emphasis is given on dose, composition of fluids, presence of buffers (in balanced solutions) and electrolytes, according to recent literature. We also review the use of hypertonic solutions.

Methods

We extracted relevant clinical literature in English specifically examining patient-oriented outcomes related to fluid volume and type.

Results

A restrictive fluid therapy prevents complications seen with liberal, large-volume therapy, even though restrictive fluid loading with crystalloids may not demonstrate large hemodynamic effects in surgical or septic patients. Hypertonic solutions may serve the purpose of small volume resuscitation but carry the disadvantage of hypernatremia. Hypotonic solutions are contraindicated in (impending) cerebral edema, whereas hypertonic solutions are probably more helpful in ameliorating than in preventing this condition and improving outcome. Balanced solutions offer a better approach for plasma composition than unbalanced ones, and the evidence for benefits in patient morbidity and mortality is increasing, particularly by helping to prevent acute kidney injury.

Conclusions

Isotonic and hypertonic crystalloid fluids are the fluids of choice for resuscitation from hypovolemia and shock. The evidence that balanced solutions are superior to unbalanced ones is increasing. Hypertonic saline is effective in mannitol-refractory intracranial hypertension, whereas hypotonic solutions are contraindicated in this condition.

【 授权许可】

   
2013 Smorenberg et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Lobo DN, Dube MG, Neal KR, Simpson J, Rowlands BJ, Allison SP: Problems with solutions: drowning in the brine of an inadequate knowledge base. Clin Nutr 2001, 20:125-130.
• [2]Grocott MPW, Mythen MG, Gan TJ: Perioperative fluid management and clinical outcomes in adults. Anesth Analg 2005, 100:1093-1106.
• [3]Finfer S, Liu B, Taylor C, Bellomo R, Billot L, Cook D, Du B, McArthur C, Myburgh J, SAFE TRIPS: Resuscitation fluid use in critically ill adults: an international cross-sectional study in 391 intensive care units. Crit Care 2010, 14:R185. BioMed Central Full Text
• [4]Morris C, Rogerson D: What is the optimal type of fluid to be used for peri-operative fluid optimization directed by oesophageal Doppler monitoring? Anaesthesia 2011, 66:819-827.
• [5]Perel P, Roberts I: Colloids versus crystalloids for fluid resuscitation in critically ill patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007., 4CD000567
• [6]Manz F, Johner SA, Wentz A, Boeing H, Remer T: Water balance throughout the adult life span in a German population. Br J Nutr 2012, 107:1673-1681.
• [7]Schneider AG, Baldwin I, Freitag E, Glassford N, Bellomo R: Estimation of fluid status changes in critically ill patients: fluid balance chart or electronic bed weight. J Crit Care 2012, 27:745.
• [8]Polderman KH, Girbes ARJ: Severe electrolyte disorders following cardiac surgery: a prospective controlled observational study. Crit Care 2004, 8:R459-R466. BioMed Central Full Text
• [9]Brandstrup B, Svensen C, Engquist A: Hemorrhage and operation cause a contraction of the extracellular space needing replacement – evidence and implications? A systematic review. Surgery 2006, 139:419-432.
• [10]Spoerke N, Michalek J, Schreiber M, Brasel KJ, Vercruysse G, MacLeod J, Dutton RP, Duchesne JC, McSwain NE, Muskat P, Johannigamn J, Cryer HM, Tillou A, Cohen MJ, Pittet JF, Knudson P, De Moya MA, Tieu B, Brundage S, Napolitano LM, Brunsvold M, Sihler KC, Peitzman AB, Zenait MS, Sperry J, Alarcon L, Croce MA, Minei JP, Stewart RM, Trauma Outcomes Group, et al.: Crystalloid resuscitation improves survival in trauma patients receiving low ratios of fresh frozen plasma to packed red blood cells. J Trauma 2011, 71:S380-S383.
• [11]Lamke L-O, Liljedahl S-O: Plasma volume changes after infusion of various plasma expanders. Resuscitation 1976, 5:93-102.
• [12]Jones SB, Whitten CW, Monk TG: Influence of crystalloid and colloid replacement solutions on hemodynamic variables during acute normovolemic hemodilution. J Clin Anesth 2004, 16:11-17.
• [13]Hahn RG: Volume kinetics for infusion fluids. Anesthesiology 2010, 113:470-481.
• [14]Gondos T, Marjanek Z, Ulakcsai Z, Szabó Z, Bogár L, Károlyi M, Gartner B, Kiss K, Havas A, Futó J: Short-term effectiveness of different volume replacement therapies in postoperative hypovolaemic patients. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2010, 27:794-800.
• [15]Lobo DN, Stanga Z, Aloysius MM, Wicks C, Nunes QM, Ingram KL, Risch L, Allison SP: Effect of volume loading with I liter intravenous infusions of 0.9% saline, 4% succinylated gelatin (Gelofusine) and 6% hydroxyethyl starch (Voluven) on blood volume and endocrine responses: a randomized, three-way crossover study in healthy volunteers. Crit Care Med 2010, 38:464-470.
• [16]James MFM, Michell WL, Joubert IA, Nicol AJ, Navsaria PH, Gillespie RS: Resuscitation with hydroxyethyl starch improves renal function and lactate clearance in penetrating trauma in a randomized controlled study: the FIRST trial (fluids in resuscitation of severe trauma). Br J Anaesth 2011, 107:693-702.
• [17]Rackow EC, Falk JL, Fein A, Siegel JS, Packman MI, Haupt MT, Kaufman BS, Putnam D: Fluid resuscitation in circulatory shock: a comparison of the cardiorespiratory effects of albumin, hetastarch, and saline solutions in patients with hypovolemic and septic shock. Crit Care Med 1983, 11:839-850.
• [18]Ernest D, Belzberg AS, Dodek PM: Distribution of normal saline and 5% albumin infusions in cardiac surgical patients. Crit Care Med 2001, 29:2299-230.
• [19]Verheij J, van Lingen A, Beishuizen A, Christiaans HM, de Jong JR, Girbes AR, Wisselink W, Rauwerda JA, Huybregts MA, Groeneveld AB: Cardiac response is greater for colloid than saline fluid loading after cardiac or vascular surgery. Intensive Care Med 2006, 32:1030-1038.
• [20]Trof RJ, Sukul SP, Twisk JW, Girbes AR, Groeneveld AB: Greater cardiac response of colloid than saline fluid loading in septic and non-septic critically ill patients with clinical hypovolemia. Crit Care Med 2010, 36:697-701.
• [21]Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, French J, Myburgh J, Norton R, SAFE Study Investigators: A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med 2004, 350:2247-2256.
• [22]Senagore AJ, Emery T, Luchtefeld M, Kim D, Dujovny N, Hoedema R: Fluid management for laparoscopic colectomy: a prospective, randomized assessment of goal-directed administration of balanced salt solution on hetastarch coupled with an enhanced recovery program. Dis Colon Rectum 2009, 52:1935-1940.
• [23]Magder S, Potter BJ, De Varennes B, Doucette S, Fergusson D, Canadian Critical Care Trials Group: Fluids after cardiac surgery: a pilot study of the use of colloids versus crystalloids. Crit Care Med 2010, 38:2117-2124.
• [24]Bayer O, Reinhart K, Sakr Y, Kabisch B, Kohl M, Riedemann NC, Bauer M, Settmacher U, Hekmat K, Hartog CS: Renal effects of synthetic colloids and crystalloids in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective sequential comparison. Crit Care Med 2011, 39:1335-1342.
• [25]Perner A, Haase N, Guttormsen AB, Tenhunen J, Klemenzson G, Åneman A, Madsen KR, Møller MH, Elkjær JM, Poulsen LM, Bendtsen A, Winding R, Steensen M, Berezowicz P, Søe-Jensen P, Bestle M, Strand K, Wiis J, White JO, Thornberg KJ, Quist L, Nielsen J, Andersen LH, Holst LB, Thormar K, Kjældgaard AL, Fabritius ML, Mondrup F, Pott FC, Møller TP, et al.: Hydroxyethyl starch 130/0.4 versus Ringer’s acetate in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2012, 367:124-134.
• [26]Bayer O, Reinhart K, Kohl M, Kabisch B, Marshall J, Sakr Y, Bauer M, Hartog C, Schwarzkopf D, Riedemann N: Effects of fluid resuscitation with synthetic colloids or crystalloids alone on shock reversal, fluid balance, and patient outcomes in patients with severe sepsis: a prospective sequential analysis. Crit Care Med 2012, 40:2543-2551.
• [27]Riddez L, Hahn RG, Brismar B, Stranberg A, Svensén C, Hedenstierna G: Central and regional hemodynamics during acute hypovolemia and volume substitution in volunteers. Crit Care Med 1997, 25:635-640.
• [28]Jacob M, Chappell D, Hofmann-Kiefer K, Helfen T, Schuelke A, Jacob B, Burges A, Conzen P, Rehm M: The intravascular volume effect of Ringer’s lactate is below 20%: a prospective study in humans. Crit Care 2012, 16:R86. BioMed Central Full Text
• [29]Zdolsek J, Li Y, Hahn RG: Detection of dehydration by using volume kinetics. Anesth Analg 2012, 115:814-22.
• [30]Doherty M, Buggy DJ: Intraoperative fluids: how much is too much? Br J Anaesth 2012, 109:69-79.
• [31]Holte K, Sharrock NE, Kehlet H: Pathophysiology and clinical implications of perioperative fluid excess. Br J Anaesth 2002, 89:622-632.
• [32]Sakr Y, Vincent JL, Reinhart K, Groeneveld J, Michalopoulos A, Sprung CL, Artigas A, Ranieri VM, Sepsis Occurence in Acutely Ill Patients Investigators: High tidal volume and positive fluid balance are associated with worse outcome in acute lung injury. Chest 2005, 128:3098-3108.
• [33]Stewart RM, Park PK, Hunt JP, McIntyre RC Jr, McCarthy J, Zarzabal LA, Michalek JE, National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Clinical Trials Network: Less is more: improved outcomes in surgical patients with conservative fluid administration and central venous pressure monitoring. J Am Coll Surg 2009, 208:725-735.
• [34]Ley EJ, Clond MA, Srour MK, Barnajian M, Mirocha J, Margulies DR, Salim A: Emergency department crystalloid resuscitation of 1.5 L or more is associated with increased mortality in elderly and nonelderly trauma patients. J Trauma 2011, 70:398-400.
• [35]Aman J, Groeneveld AB, van Nieuw Amerongen GP: Predictors of pulmonary edema formation during fluid loading in the critically ill with presumed hypovolemia. Crit Care Med 2012, 40:793-799.
• [36]Heradstveit BE, Guttormsen AB, Langørgen J, Hammersborg SM, Wentzel-Larsen T, Fanebust R, Larsson EM, Heltne JK: Capillary leakage in post-cardiac arrest survivors during therapeutic hypothermia - a prospective, randomised study. Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med 2010, 18:29. BioMed Central Full Text
• [37]Oda J, Ueyama M, Yamashita K, Inoue T, Noborio M, Ode Y, Aoki Y, Sugimoto H: Hypertonic lactated saline resuscitation reduces the risk of abdominal compartment syndrome in severely burned patients. J Trauma 2006, 60:64-71.
• [38]Madigan MC, Kemp CD, Johnson JC, Cotton BA: Secondary abdominal compartment syndrome after severe extremity injury: are early, aggressive fluid resuscitation strategies to blame? J Trauma 2008, 64:280-285.
• [39]Cooper DJ, Myles PS, McDermott FT, Murray LJ, Laidlaw J, Cooper G, Tremayne AB, Bernard SS, Ponsford J, HTS Study Investigators: Prehospital hypertonic saline resuscitation of patients with hypotension and severe traumatic brain injury: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004, 291:1350-1357.
• [40]Strandvik GF: Hypertonic saline in critical care: a review of the literature and guidelines for use in hypotensive states and raised intracranial pressure. Anaesthesia 2009, 64:9901003.
• [41]Bulger EM, May S, Brasel KJ, Schreiber M, Kerby JD, Tisherman SA, Newgard C, Slutsky A, Coimbra R, Emerson S, Minei JP, Bardarson B, Kudenchuk P, Baker A, Christenson J, Idris A, Davis D, Fabian TC, Aufderheide TP, Callaway C, Williams C, Banek J, Vaillancourt C, van Heest R, Sopko G, Hata JS, Hoyt DB, ROC Investigators: Out-of-hospital hypertonic resuscitation following severe traumatic brain injury. JAMA 2010, 304:1455-1464.
• [42]Bulger EM, May S, Kerby JD, Emerson S, Stiell IG, Schreiber MA, Brasel KJ, Tisherman SA, Coimbra R, Rizoli S, Minei JP, Hata JS, Sopko G, Evans DC, Hoyt DB, ROC investigators: Out-of-hospital hypertonic resuscitation after traumatic hemorrhagic shock. A randomized, placebo controlled trial. Ann Surg 2011, 253:431-441.
• [43]McAllister V, Burns KEA, Znajda T, Church B: Hypertonic saline for peri-operative fluid management (review). Cochrane Data base Syst Rev 2010., 1CD005576
• [44]Rhee P, Wang D, Ruff P, Austin B, DeBraux S, Wolcott K, Burris D, Ling G, Sun L: Human neutrophil activation and increased adhesion by various resuscitation fluids. Crit Care Med 2000, 28:74-78.
• [45]Junger WG, RHind SG, Rizoli SB, Cuschieri J, Shiu MY, Baker AJ, Li L, Shek PN, Hoyt DB, Bulger EM: Resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock patients with hypertonic saline - without dextran - inhibits neutrophil and endothelial activation. Shock 2012, 38:341-350.
• [46]Leverve XM, Boon C, Hakim T, Anwar M, Siregar E, Mustafa I: Half-molar sodium-lactate solution has a beneficial effect in patients after coronary artery bypass grafting. Intensive Care Med 2008, 34:1796-1803.
• [47]Popper AH: Hyperosmolar therapy for raised intracranial pressure. N Engl J Med 2012, 367:746-752.
• [48]Kamel H, Navi BB, Nakagawa K, Hemphill C, Ko NU: Hypertonic saline versus mannitol for the treatment of elevated intracranial pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Crit Care Med 2011, 39:554-559.
• [49]Nisanevich V, Felsenstein I, ALmogy G, Weissman C, Einav S, Matot I: Effect of intraoperative fluid management on outcome after intraabdominal surgery. Anesthesiology 2005, 103:25-32.
• [50]de Aguilar-Nasciamento JE, Diniz BN, Do Carmo AV, Silveira EAO, Silva RM: Clinical benefits after the implementation of a protocol of restricted perioperative intravenous crystalloid fluids in major abdominal operations. World J Surg 2009, 33:925-930.
• [51]González-Fajardo JA, Mengibar L, Brizuela JA, Castrodeza J, Vaquero-Puerta C: Effect of postoperative restrictive fluid therapy in the recovery of patients with abdominal vascular surgery. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg 2009, 37:538-543.
• [52]WenKui Y, Ning L, JianFeng G, WeiQin L, ShaoQiu T, Zhihui T, Tao G, JuanJuan Z, FengChan X, Hui S, WeiMing Z, Jie-Shou L: Restricted peri-operative fluid administration adjusted by serum lactate level improved outcome after major elective surgery for gastrointestinal malignancy. Surgery 2010, 147:542-552.
• [53]Lobo SM, Ronchi LS, Oliveira NE, Brandăo PG, Froes A, Cunrath GS, Nishiyama KG, Netinho JG, Lobo FR: Restrictive strategy of intraoperative fluid maintenance during optimization of oxygen delivery decreases major complications after high-risk surgery. Crit Care 2011, 15:R226. BioMed Central Full Text
• [54]Melis M, Marcon F, Masi A, Sarpel U, Miller G, Moore H, Cohen S, Berman R, Pachter HL, Newman E: Effect of intra-operative fluid volume on peri-operative outcomes after pancreaticoduodenectomy for pancreatic adenocarcinoma. J Surg Oncol 2012, 105:81-84.
• [55]Abraham-Nordling M, Hjern F, Pollack J, Prytz M, Borg T, Kressner U: Randomized clinical trial of fluid resuscitation in colorectal surgery. Br J Surg 2012, 99:186-191.
• [56]Lobo DN, Bostock KA, Neal KR, Perkins AC, Rowlands BJ, Allison SP: Effect of salt and water balance on recovery of gastrointestinal function after elective colonic resection: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002, 359:1812-1818.
• [57]Joshi GP: Intraoperative fluid restriction improves outcome of major elective gastrointestinal surgery. Anesth Analg 2005, 101:601-605.
• [58]Schnüriger B, Inaba K, Wu T, Eberle BM, Belzberg H, Demetriades D: Crystalloids after primary colon resection and anastomosis at initial trauma laparotomy: excessive volumes are associated with anastomotic leakage. J Trauma 2011, 70:603-610.
• [59]Varadhan KK, Lobo DN: Symposium 3: death by drowning. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials of intravenous fluid therapy in major elective open abdominal surgery: getting the balance right. Proc Nutr Soc 2010, 69:488-498.
• [60]Moretti EW, Robertson KM, El-Moalem H, Gan TJ: Intraoperative colloid administration reduces postoperative nausea and vomiting and improves postoperative outcomes compared with crystalloid administration. Anesth Analg 2003, 96:611-617.
• [61]Bundgaard-Nielsen M, Secher NH, Kehlet H: ‘Liberal” vs. ‘restrictive’ perioperative fluid therapy – a critical assessment of the evidence. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2009, 53:843-851.
• [62]Futier E, Constantin J-M, Petit A, Chanques G, Kwiatkowski F, Flamein R, Slim K, Sapin V, Jaber S, Bazin JE: Conservative vs restrictive individualized goal-directed fluid replacement strategy in major abdominal surgery. A prospective trial. Arch Surg 2010, 145:1193-1200.
• [63]Sharma CS, Gupta V, Dixi MB, Sadhu S, Jashi N: Effect of perioperative intravenous crystalloid infusion on postoperative nausea and vomiting after laparoscopic cholecycstectomy. J Anaesth Clin Pharmacol 2010, 26:383-386.
• [64]Srinivasa S, Taylor MHG, Sammour T, Kahokehr AA, Hill AG: Oesophageal Doppler-guided fluid administration in colorectal surgery: critical appraisal of published clinical trials. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2011, 55:4-13.
• [65]Challand C, Struthers R, Sneyd JR, Erasmus PD, Mellor N, Hosie KB, Minto G: Randomized controlled trial of intraoperative goal-directed fluid therapy in aerobically fit and unfit patients having major colorectal surgery. Br J Anaesth 2012, 108:53-62.
• [66]Corcoran T, Rhodes JE, Clarke S, Myles PSS, Ho KM: Perioperative fluid management strategies in major surgery: a stratified meta-analysis. Anesth Analg 2012, 114:640-651.
• [67]Brunkhorst FM, Engel C, Bloos F, Meier-Hellmann A, Ragaller M, Weiler N, Moerer O, Gruendling M, Oppert M, Grond S, Olthoff D, Jaschinski U, John S, Rossaint R, Welte T, Schaefer M, Kern P, Kuhnt E, Kiehntopf M, Hartog C, Natanson C, Loeffler M, Reinhart K, German Competence Network Sepsis (SepNet): Intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2008, 358:125-139.
• [68]Osugi T, Tatara T, Yada S, Tashiro C: Hydration status after overnight fast as measured by urine osmolality does not alter the magnitude of hypotension during general anesthesia in low risk patients. Anesth Analg 2011, 112:1307-1313.
• [69]Cuthbertson BH, Campbell MK, Stott SA, Elders A, Hernández R, Boyers D, Norrie J, Kinsella J, Brittenden J, Cook J, Rae D, Cotton SC, Alcorn D, Addison J, Grant A, OCCUS Study Group: A pragmatic multi-centre randomized controlled trial of fluid loading in high-risk surgical patients undergoing major elective surgery - the FOCCUS study. Crit Care 2011, 15:R296. BioMed Central Full Text
• [70]Awad S, Allison SP, Lobo DN: The history of 0.9% saline. Clin Nutr 2008, 27:179-188.
• [71]Williams EL, Hildebrand KL, McCormick SA, Bedel MJ: The effect of intravenous lactated Ringer’s solution versus 0.9% sodium chloride solution on serum osmolality in human volunteers. Anesth Analg 1999, 88:999-1003.
• [72]Hahn RG, Drobin D: Rapid water and slow sodium excretion of acetated Ringer’s solution dehydrates cells. Anesth Analg 2003, 987:1590-1594.
• [73]Hoste EAJ, De Waele JJ, Gevaert SA, Uchino S, Kellum JA: Sodium bicarbonate for prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2010, 25:747-758.
• [74]Klima T, Christ A, Marana I, Kalbermatter S, Uthoff H, Burri E, Hartwiger S, Schindler C, Breidthardt T, Marenzi G, Mueller C: Sodium chloride vs. sodium bicarbonate for the prevention of contrast medium-induced nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial. Eur Heart J 2012, 33:2071-2079.
• [75]Hewitt J, Uniacke M, Hansi NK, Venkat-Raman G, McCarthy K: Sodium bicarbonate supplements for treating acute kidney injury. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012., 6CD009204
• [76]Guidet B, Soni N, Della Rocca G, Kozek S, Vallet B, Annane D, James M: A balanced view of balanced solutions. Crit Care 2010, 14:325. BioMed Central Full Text
• [77]Omron EM, Omron RM: A physicochemical model of crystalloid infusion on acid–base status. J Intensive Care Med 2010, 25:271-280.
• [78]McFarlane C, Lee A: A comparison of Plasmalyte 148 and 0.9% saline for intra-operative fluid replacement. Anaesthesia 1994, 49:779-781.
• [79]Scheingraber S, Rehm M, Sehmisch C, Finsterer U: Rapid saline infusion produces hyperchloremic acidosis in patients undergoing gynecologic surgery. Anesthesiol 1999, 90:1265-1270.
• [80]Ho AM-H, Karmakar MK, Contardi LAH, Ng SSW, Hewson JR: Excessive use of normal saline in managing traumatized patients in shock: a preventable contributor to acidosis. J Trauma 2001, 51:173-177.
• [81]Wilkes NJ, Woolf R, Mutch M, Mallett SV, Peachey T, Stephens R, Mythen MG: The effects of balanced versus saline-based hetastarch and crystalloid solutions on acid–base and electrolyte status and gastric mucosal perfusion in elderly surgical patients. Anesth Analg 2001, 93:811-816.
• [82]Waters JH, Gottlieb A, Schoenwald P: Normal saline versus lactated Ringer’s solution for intraoperative fluid management in patients undergoing abdominal aortic aneurysm repair: an outcome study. Anesth Analg 2001, 93:817-822.
• [83]Reid F, Lobo DN, Willimas RN, Rowlands BJ, Allison SP: (Ab)normal saline and physiological Hartmann’s solution: a randomized double-blind crossover study. Clin Sci 2003, 104:17-24.
• [84]O’Malley CMN, Frumento RJ, Hardy MA, Benvenisty AI, Brentjens TE, Mercer JS, Bennett-Guerrero E: A randomized, double-blind comparison of lactate Ringer’s solution and 0.9% NaCl during renal transplantation. Anesth Analg 2005, 100:1518-1524.
• [85]Bellomo R, Morimatsu H, French C, Cole L, Story D, Uchino S, Naka T, SAFE Study Investigators: The effects of saline or albumin resuscitation on acid–base status and serum electrolytes. Crit Care Med 2006, 34:2891-2897.
• [86]Chua H-R, Venkatesh B, Stachowski E, Schneider AG, Perkins K, Ladanyi S, Kruger P, Bellomo R: Plasma-Lyte 148 vs 0.9% saline for fluid resuscitation in diabetic ketoacidosis. J Crit Care 2012, 27:138-145.
• [87]Lang W, Zander R: Prediction of dilutional acidosis based on the revised classical dilution concept for bicarbonate. J Appl Physiol 2005, 98:62-71.
• [88]Shaw AD, Bagshaw SM, Goldstein SL, Scherer LA, Duan M, Schermer CR, Kellum JA: Major complications, mortality, and resource utilization after open abdominal surgery: 0.9% saline compared to Plasma-Lyte. Ann Surg 2012, 255:821-829.
• [89]Burdett E, Dushianthan A, Bennett Guerrero E, Cro S, Gan TJ, Grocott MP, James MF, Mythen MG, O'Malley CM, Roche AM, Rowan K: Perioperative buffered versus non-buffered fluid administration for surgery in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012, 12:CD004089.
• [90]Revelly J-P, Tappy L, Martinez A, Bollmann M, Cayeux M-C, Berger MM, Chioléro RL: Lactate and glucose metabolism in severe sepsis and cardiogenic shock. Crit Care Med 2005, 33:2235-2240.
• [91]Didwania A, Miller J, Kassel D, Jackson EV Jr, Chernow B: Effect of intravenous lactated Ringer's solution infusion on the circulating lactate concentration: part 3. Results of a prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Crit Care Med 1997, 25:1851-1854.
• [92]Hadimioglu N, Saadawy I, Saglam T, Ertug Z, Dinckan A: The effect of different crystalloid solutions on acid–base balance and early kidney function after kidney transplantation. Anesth Analg 2008, 107:264-269.
• [93]Cash RA, Toha KMM, Nalin DR, Huq Z, Phillips RA: Acetate in the correction of acidosis secondary to diarrhoea. Lancet 1969, 2:302-303.
• [94]Vincent JL, Vanderweghem JL, Degaute JP, Berré J, Dufaye P, Kahn RJ: Acetate-induced myocardial depression during hemodialysis for acute renal failure. Kidney Int 1982, 22:653-657.
• [95]Aoki K, Yoshino A, Yoh K, Sekine K, Yamazaki M, Aikawa N: A comparison of Ringer’s lactate and acetate solutions and resuscitative effects on splanchnic dysoxia in patients with extensive burns. Burns 2010, 36:1080-1085.
• [96]Davies PG, Venkatesh B, Morgan TJ, Presneill JJ, Kruger PS, Thomas BJ, Roberts MS, Mundy J: Plasma acetate, gluconate and interleukin-6 profiles during and after cardiopulmonary bypass: a comparison of Plasma-Lyte 148 with a bicarbonate-balanced solution. Crit Care 2011, 15:R21. BioMed Central Full Text
• [97]Chowdhury AH, Cox EF, Francis ST, Lobo DN: A randomized, controlled, double-blind crossover study on the effects of 2-L infusions of 0.9% saline and Plasma-Lyte®148 on renal blood flow velocity and renal cortical tissue perfusion in healthy volunteers. Ann Surg 2012, 256:18-24.
• [98]Yunos NM, Bellomo R, Hegarty C, Story D, Ho L, Bailey M: Association between a chloride-liberal vs chloride-restrictive intravenous fluid administration strategy and kidney injury in critically ill adults. JAMA 2012, 308:1566-1572.
• [99]Haase M, Haase-Fielitz A, Bellomo R, Devarajan P, Story D, Matalanis G, Reade MC, Bagshaw SM, Seevanayagam N, Seevanayagam S, Doolan L, Buxton B, Dragun D: Sodium bicarbonate to prevent increases in serum creatinine after cardiac surgery: a pilot double-blind, randomized controlled trial. Crit Care Med 2009, 37:39-47.
• [100]Neuhaus W, Schick MA, Bruno RR, Schneiker B, Förster CY, Roewer N, Wunder C: The effects of colloid solutions on renal proximal tubular cells in vitro. Anesth Analg 2012, 114:371-374.
• [101]Khan R, Kirschenbaum LA, Larow C, Astiz ME: The effect of resuscitation fluids on neutrophil-endothelial cell interactions in septic shock. Shock 2011, 36:440-444.
• [102]Wu BU, Hwang JQ, Gardner TH, Repas K, Delee R, Yu S, Smith B, Banks PA, Conwell DL: Lactated Ringer's solution reduces systemic inflammation compared with saline in patients with acute pancreatitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011, 9:710-717.
• [103]Roche AM, James MFM, Bennett-Guerrero E, Mythen MG: A head-to-head comparison of the in vitro coagulation effects of saline-based and balanced electrolyte crystalloid and colloid intravenous fluids. Anesth Analg 2006, 102:1274-1279. 99
• [104]Casutt M, Kristoffy A, Schuepfer G, Spahn DR, Konrad C: Effects on coagulation of balanced (130/0.4) and non-balanced (130/0.4) hydroxyethyl starch or gelatin compared with balanced Ringer’s solution: an in vitro study using two different viscoelastic coagulation tests ROTEM™ and SONOCLOT™. Br J Anaesth 2010, 105:273-281.
• [105]Lindner G, Funk GC: Hypernatremia in critically ill patients. J Crit Car 2013, 28:e11-e20.
• [106]Van De Vreede M, Wilson SG, Dooley MJ: Intravenous potassium chloride use in hospitals: current practice. J Pharm Pract Res Vol 2008, 38:19-22.
• [107]Philips DA, Bauch TD: Rapid correction of hypokalemia in a patient with an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and recurrent ventricular tachycardia. J Emerg Med 2010, 38:308-316.
• [108]Adrogué HJ, Madias NE: The challenge of hyponatremia. J Am Soc Nephrol 2012, 23:1140-1148.
• [109]Sakr Y, Rother S, Ferreira AM, Ewald C, Dünisch P, Riedermann N, Reinhart K: Fluctuations in serum sodium levels are associated with an increased risk of death in surgical ICU patients. Crit Care Med 2013, 41:133-142.
• [110]Kelly A, Levine MA: Hypocalcemia in the critically ill patient. J Intensive Care Med 2012, 28:166-177.
• [111]Anastasopoulos D, Kefaliakos A, Michlopoulos A: Is plasma calcium concentration implicated in the development of critical illness polyneuropathy and myopathy? Crit Care 2011, 15:R247. BioMed Central Full Text
• [112]Charron T, Bernard F, Skrobik Y, Simoneau N, Gagnon N, Leblanc M: Intravenous phosphate in the intensive care unit: more aggressive repletion regimens for moderate and severe hypophosphatemia. Intensive Care Med 2003, 29:1273-1278.
• [113]Geerse DA, Bindels AJ, Kuiper MA, Roos AN, Spronk PE, Schultz MJ: Treatment of hypophosphatemia in the intensive care unit: a review. Crit Care 2010, 14:R147. BioMed Central Full Text