Waterborne parasites: a current status from the Philippines

Particle and Fibre Toxicology

Veeranoot Nissapatorn⁵  Yee-Ling Lau⁵  Init Ithoi⁵  Hemah Andiappan⁵  Sucheep Phiriyasamith²  Nongyao Sawangjaroen⁴  Yvonne AL Lim⁵  Tian-Chye Tan⁵  Norbel Tabo³  Hazel AL Tabo³  Julieta Z Dungca¹  Cristina C Salibay³  Thulasi Kumar⁵  Subashini Onichandran⁵ 

[1] School of Science and Technology, Centro Escolar University, Manila, Philippines;Graduate School, Kasem Bundit University, Bangkok, Thailand;Biological Sciences Department, College of Science and Computer Studies, De La Salle University-Dasmariñas, Dasmariñas, Philippines;Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Thailand;Department of Parasitology (Southeast Asia Water Team), Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

关键词: Naegleria spp.;    Acanthamoeba spp.;    Giardia spp.;    Cryptosporidium spp.;    Correlation;    The Philippines;    Waterborne parasites;   

Others  :  806184
DOI  :  10.1186/1756-3305-7-244

 received in 2014-03-20, accepted in 2014-05-08,  发布年份 2014

【 摘 要 】

Background

Despite the amount of awareness created, waterborne disease still poses threat, especially in developing countries. Due to the scarcity of reported data on waterborne parasites, the consumption of unsafe water prolongs. Thus, the occurrences of waterborne parasites from various samples were investigated from one of the Southeast Asian country, the Philippines.

Methods

A total of thirty three samples, each consisting of twelve liters, were collected and processed to obtain the sediment. Ten liters of sample each was processed to detect Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. using an immunomagnetic separation method prior to enumeration via fluorescence microscope. Meanwhile, the remaining two liters were cultured to detect Acanthamoeba and Naegleria through microscopy examination and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis.

Results

Twelve samples (36.4%) from river (5), swimming pool (1), pond (3), rain tank (1), and natural lake (2) were positive for Cryptosporidium spp., 17 (45.5%) samples from river (9), pond (2), swimming pool (1), rain tank (1), and natural lake (4) were positive for Giardia spp. while, 13 (33.3%) samples from river (3), swimming pool (2), pond (2), dispenser (1), well (1), tap (2) and natural lake (2) were positive for Acanthamoeba spp. and 5 (18.2%) samples from river (1), natural lake (1), tap (1), dispenser (1) and mineral (1) were Naegleria spp. positive. Physical parameters such as temperature, conductivity, total dissolved solid (TDS), salinity, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, and turbidity and chemical parameters such as ammonia, chlorine, fluoride, nitrate and nitrite were also measured. The highest chemical contamination was observed at pond 2. A good correlation was observed between Giardia and nitrite (r = 0.736, p < 0.01) and Giardia and nitrate (r = 0.502, p < 0.01).

Conclusion

This study was aimed to create greater awareness of parasitic contamination in the water environment in the Philippines and also to act as a platform of the current scenario for policymakers as water pollution is a key health issue in this region.

【 授权许可】

   
2014 Onichandran et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]United Nations Water (UN Water) [http://www.unwater.org/downloads/WCB/finalpdf/PHL_pagebypage.pdf webcite]
• [2]Yates MV: Monitoring Concerns and Procedures for Human Health Effects. In Wastewater Reuse for Golf Course Irrigation, US Golf Association. Boca Raton: Lewis Publishers; 1994.
• [3]USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency): Region 6. Collecting Water-Quality Samples for Dissolved Metals in Water. 2000. [http://www.epa.gov/region6/qa/qadevtools/mod5_sops/surface_water_sampling/low_level_metals/r6wtr-sampling-metals.pdf webcite].
• [4]Onichandran S, Kumar T, Lim YA, Sawangjaroen N, Andiappan H, Salibay CC, Chye TT, Ithoi I, Dungca JZ, Sulaiman WY, Ling LY, Nissapatorn V: Waterborne parasites and physico-chemical assessment of selected lakes in Malaysia. Parasitol Res 2013, 112:4185-4191.
• [5]SamSam Water Foundation [http://www.samsamwater.com/index.php webcite]
• [6]USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency): Method 1623.1: Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Water by Filtration/IMS/FA. 2012. [http://water.epa.gov/scitech/drinkingwater/labcert/upload/epa816r12001.pdf webcite]
• [7]Anisah N, Amal H, Kamel AG, Yusof S, Noraina AR, Norhayati M: Isolation of Acanthamoeba sp. from conjunctival sac of healthy individuals using swab. Trop Biomed 2005, 22(1):11-14.
• [8]Page FC: A New Key to Freshwater and Soil Gymnamoebae. London: Ferry House; 1988.
• [9]Ithoi I, Mahmud R, Abdul Basher MH, Jali A, Abdulsalam AM, Ibrahim J, Mak JW: Acanthamoeba genotype T4 detected in naturally-infected feline corneas found to be in homology with those causing human keratitis. Trop Biomed 2013, 30(1):131-140.
• [10]Schroeder JM, Booton GC, Hay J, Niszl IA, Seal DV, Markus MB, Fuerst PA, Byers TJ: Use of subgenic 18 S ribosomal DNA PCR and sequencing for genus and genotype identification of Acanthamoebae from humans with keratitis and from sewage sludge. J Clin Microbiol 2001, 39:1903-1911.
• [11]Pélandakis M, Pernin P: Use of multiplex PCR and PCR restriction enzyme analysis for detection and exploration of the variability in the free-living amoeba Naegleria in the environment. Appl Environ Microbiol 2002, 68:2061-2065.
• [12]DENR Administrative Order 2008-XX. Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards 2008 [http://www.emb.gov.ph/wqms/Draft%20DAO%20on%20the%20Revised%20WQG%20and%20GES%20rev%20121807.pdf webcite]
• [13]Natividad FF, Buerano CC, Lago CB, Mapua CA, de Guzman BB, Seraspe EB, Samentar LP, Endo T: Prevalence rates of Giardia and Cryptosporidium among diarrheic patients in the Philippines. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Publ Health 2008, 39(6):991-999.
• [14]Su GS: Water-borne illness from contaminated drinking water sources in close proximity to a dumpsite in Payatas, the Philippines. JRTPH 2005, 4:43-48.
• [15]Baldursson S, Karanis P: Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks - an update 2004–2010. Water Res 2011, 45(20):6603-6614.
• [16]Karanis P, Kourenti C, Smith H: Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: a worldwide review of outbreaks and lessons learnt. J Water Health 2007, 5:1-38.
• [17]Kao PM, Chou MY, Tao CW, Huang WC, Hsu BM, Shen SM, Fan CW, Chiu YC: Diversity and seasonal impact of Acanthamoeba species in a subtropical rivershed. Biomed Res Int 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/405794 webcite
• [18]Carmena D, Aguinagalde X, Zigorraga C, Fernández-Crespo JC, Ocio JA: Presence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in drinking water supplies in northern Spain. J Appl Microbiol 2007, 102(3):619-629.
• [19]Lim YA, Aahmad RA: Occurrence of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in the Temuan Orang Asli (aborigine) river system. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Publ Health 2004, 35(4):801-810.
• [20]Kumar T, Onichandran S, Lim YA, Sawangjaroen N, Ithoi I, Andiappan H, Salibay CC, Dungca JZ, Chye TT, Sulaiman WY, Ling Lau Y, Nissapatorn V: Comparative study on waterborne parasites between Malaysia and Thailand: a new insight. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2014, 90:682-689.
• [21]LeChevallier MW, Norton WD: Examining relationships between particle counts and Giardia, Cryptosporidium and turbidity. J Am Water Works Assoc 1992, 84:54-60.