Parenting and depressive symptoms among adolescents in four Caribbean societies

Chinese Medicine

Rosemarie N Wilson⁴  Nelson Clarke¹  Amrie Morris²  Sharon Halliday³  Roger C Gibson⁵  Gillian A Lowe⁵  Garth Lipps⁴ 

[1] School of Clinical Medicine and Research, The University of the West Indies - Bahamas, Nassau, Bahamas;Ministry of Health, Government of St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Kingstown, UK;Ministry of Health and the Environment, Government of St. Kitts and Nevis, Basseterre, UK;Department of Sociology, Psychology and Social Work, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica;Department of Community Health and Psychiatry, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica

关键词: Adolescents;    Depressive symptoms;    Caribbean nations;    Parenting;   

Others  :  791251
DOI  :  10.1186/1753-2000-6-31

 received in 2012-04-30, accepted in 2012-08-27,  发布年份 2012

【 摘 要 】

Background

The strategies that parents use to guide and discipline their children may influence their emotional health. Relatively little research has been conducted examining the association of parenting practices to depressive symptoms among Caribbean adolescents. This project examines the association of parenting styles to levels of depressive symptoms among adolescents in Jamaica, the Bahamas, St. Kitts and Nevis, and St. Vincent.

Methods

Adolescents attending grade ten of academic year 2006/2007 in Jamaica, the Bahamas, St. Vincent, and St. Kitts and Nevis were administered the Parenting Practices Scale along with the BDI-II. Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive and Neglectful parenting styles were created using a median split procedure of the monitoring and nurturance subscales of the Parenting Practices Scale. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationships of parenting styles to depressive symptoms.

Results

A wide cross-section of tenth grade students in each nation was sampled (n = 1955; 278 from Jamaica,217 from the Bahamas, 737 St. Kitts and Nevis, 716 from St. Vincent; 52.1% females, 45.6% males and 2.3% no gender reported; age 12 to 19 years, mean = 15.3 yrs, sd = .95 yrs). Nearly half (52.1%) of all adolescents reported mild to severe symptoms of depression with 29.1% reporting moderate to severe symptoms of depression. In general, authoritative and permissive parenting styles were both associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms in adolescents. However, the relationship of parenting styles to depression scores was not consistent across countries (p < .05). In contrast to previous research on Caribbean parenting, caregivers in this study used a mixture of different parenting styles with the two most popular styles being authoritative and neglectful parenting.

Conclusions

There appears to be an association between parenting styles and depressive symptoms that is differentially manifested across the islands of Jamaica, the Bahamas, St. Kitts and Nevis and St. Vincent.

【 授权许可】

   
2012 Lipps et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Baumrind D: Effects of authoritative parental control on child behaviour. Child Dev 1966, 37:887-907.
• [2]Browne D, Odueyungbo A, Thabane L, Byrne C, Smart L: Parenting-by-gender interactions in child psychopathology: attempting to address inconsistencies with a Canadian national database. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health 2010, 4:5. BioMed Central Full Text
• [3]Crawford-Brown C: The Impact of Parenting on conduct disorder in Jamaican male adolescents. Adolescence 1999, 34:417-437.
• [4]Grantham-McGregor S, Landman J, Desai P: Child rearing in poor urban Jamaica. Child Care Health Dev 1983, 9:57-71.
• [5]Lempers JD, Clarke-Lempers D, Simons RL: Economic Hardship, Parenting, and Distress in Adolescence. Child Dev 1989, 60:25-39.
• [6]Liem JH, Cavell EC, Lusting K: The influence of authoritative parenting during adolescence on depressive symptoms in young adulthood: Examining the mediating roles of self-development and peer support. J Genet Psychol 2010, 17:73-92.
• [7]Smith DE, Springer CM, Barrett S: Physical discipline and socioemotional adjustment among Jamaican adolescents. J Family Violence 2011, 26:51-61.
• [8]Berkien M, Louwerse A, Verhulst F, Ende J: Children's perceptions of dissimilarity in parenting styles are associated with internalizing and externalizing behavior. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2012, 21:79-85.
• [9]Bolkan C, Sano Y, De Costa J, Acock AC, Day RD: Early Adolescents' Perceptions of Mothers' and Fathers' Parenting Styles and Problem Behavior. Marriage & Family Review 2010, 46:563-579.
• [10]Gfroerer KP, Kern RM, Curlette WL, White J, Jonyniene J: Parenting Style and Personality: Perceptions of Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents. J Individ Psychol 2011, 67:57-73.
• [11]McKinney C, Donnelly R, Renk K: Perceived Parenting, Positive and Negative Perceptions of Parents, and Late Adolescent Emotional Adjustment. Child & Adolescent Mental Health 2008, 13:66-73.
• [12]van Zalk N, Kerr M: Shy Adolescents' Perceptions of Parents' Psychological Control and Emotional Warmth: Examining Bidirectional Links. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly 2011, 57:375-401.
• [13]Behnke A, Plunkett S, Sands T, Bímaca-Colbert M: The Relationship Between Latino Adolescents' Perceptions of Discrimination, Neighborhood Risk, and Parenting on Self-Esteem and Depressive Symptoms. J Cross-Cultural Psychology 2011, 42:1179-1197.
• [14]Smith DE, Mosby G: Jamaican child-rearing practices: the role of corporal punishment. Adolescence 2003, 38:369-381.
• [15]O'Connor TG, Scott SBC: Parenting and outcomes for children. York, England: Joseph Rowntree Foundation; 2007.
• [16]Brown J, Johnson S: Childrearing and child participation in Jamaican families. Int J Early Years Edu 2008, 16:31-40.
• [17]Samms-Vaughan ME, Williams S, Brown J: Disciplinary practices among parents of six year olds in Jamaica. In Caribbean Childhoods: From Research to Action. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle; 2005:56-81.
• [18]Steinberg L, Lamborn SD, Darling N, Mounts NS, Dornbusch SM: Over-time changes in adjustment and competence among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful families. Child Dev 1994, 65:754-770.
• [19]Shaw SK, Dallos R: Attachment and adolescent depression: the impact of early attachment experiences. Attach Hum Dev 2005, 7:409-424.
• [20]Murray CJL, Lopez AD: The global burden of disease: A comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020. Cambridge, MA: Harvard School of Public Health; 1996.
• [21]Wright E, Samms-Vaughan ME: The economic impact of mental illness. In Images of Psychiatry- The Caribbean. Edited by Hickling FW, Sorel E. Kingston, Jamaica: Department of Community Health and Psychiatry, The University of the West Indies; 2005:273-295.
• [22]World Bank: Country and lending groups. 2012.
• [23]Lipps GE, Lowe GA, Morris A, Halliday S, Clarke N, Wilson RN: School factors associated with depression in a Jamaican high school cohort. J Black Psychology 2009, 36(3):369-380.
• [24]Lowe GA, Lipps GE, Young R: Factors Associated with Depression Among Students of the University of the West Indies - Mona. West Indian Medical J 2009, 58:21-27.
• [25]Lowe GA, Lipps G, Halliday S, Morris A, Clarke N, Wilson RN: Depressive symptoms among fourth form students in St. Kitts and Nevis high schools. Scientific World J 2009, 28:149-157.
• [26]Maharaj RJ, Alli F, Cumberbatch K, Laloo P, Mohammed S, Ramesar A, Rampersad N, Roopnarinesingh N, Ramtahal I: Depression among Adolescents, Aged 13–19 Years, Attending Secondary Schools in Trinidad: Prevalence and Associated Factors. West Indian Medical J 2008, 57:352-359.
• [27]Statistical Institute of Jamaica: Jamaica Population and Housing Census. http://statinja.gov.jm/Demo_SocialStats/population.aspx webcite
• [28]Statistics Bahamas: All Bahamas Medium Projection Tables 2000–2030. http://statistics.bahamas.gov.bs/download/093911800.pdf webcite
• [29]The World Factbook. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html webcite
• [30]Bohatyretz S, Lipps GE: Diversity in the Classroom: Characteristics of elementary students receiving special education. Educ Q Rev 2000, 6:7-19.
• [31]Evans H: Streaming and its effects on students. In Inside Jamaican Schools. Edited by Evans H. Kingston, Jamaica: University of the West Indies; 2001:90-104.
• [32]Ministry of Education: What is the Grade Six Achievement Test (GSAT)?. 2009.
• [33]Miller E: Jamaican Society and High Schooling. Kingston; 1990.
• [34]St Andrews High School: About Us. http://www.standrewsbahamas.com/about-us/about-us.php webcite
• [35]U.S. Department of State: Background Note: The Bahamas. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1857.htm webcite
• [36]Encyclopedia of the Nations: The Bahamas - Education. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/The-Bahamas-EDUCATION.html webcite
• [37]Encyclopedia of the Nations: St. Kitts and Nevis - Education. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/St-Kitts-and-Nevis-EDUCATION.html webcite
• [38]Lipps G, Lowe GA, Halliday S, Morris A, Clarke N, Wilson RN: The Association of Academic Streaming to Depressive Symptoms in Adolescents Across Three Caribbean Countries. Child & Adolescent Mental Health 2010, 4:1-10. BioMed Central Full Text
• [39]Beck AT, Steer RA, Brown GK: BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory: Manual. New York: Harcourt Brace; 1996.
• [40]Skorikov VB, Vandervoort DJ: Relationships Between The Underlying Constructs Of The Beck Depression Inventory And The Center For Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale. Educ Psychol Meas 2003, 63:319-335.
• [41]Kumar G, Steer R, Teitelman K, Villacis L: Effectiveness of the Beck Depression Inventory-II subscale in screening for Major Depressive Disorders in Adolescent Psychiatric Inpatients. Assessment 2002, 9:164-170.
• [42]Lipps GE, Lowe GA: Validation of the Brief Screen for Depression in a Jamaican cohort. West Indian Medical J 2006, 55:425-429.
• [43]Lipps GE, Lowe GA, Young R: Validation of the Beck Depression Inventory-II in a Jamaican university student cohort. West Indian Medical J 2007, 56:404-408.
• [44]Byrne BM, Campbell TL: Cross-cultural comparisons and the presumption of equivalent measurement and theoretical structure: a look beneath the surface. J Cross-Cultural Psychology 1999, 30:555-574.
• [45]Lau S, Chan D, Lau PSY: Facets of loneliness and depression among Chinese children and adolescents. J Soc Psychol 1999, 139:713-729.
• [46]Schaefer ES: Children's Reports of Parental Behavior: An Inventory. Child Dev 1965, 36:413-424.
• [47]Roberts GC, Block JH, Block J: Continuity and Change in Parents' Child-Rearing Practices. Child Dev 1984, 55:586-597.
• [48]Fotti SA, Katz LY, Afifi TO, Cox BJ: The Associations Between Peer and Parental Relationships and Suicidal Behaviours in Early Adolescents. Canadian J Psychiatry 2006, 51:698-703.
• [49]Thurston S, Paul L, Loney P, Wong M, Browne G: The Quality of Life of a Multidiagnosis Group of Special Needs Children: Associations and Costs. Int J Pediatrics 2010 2010.
• [50]Meeks-Gardner JM, Powell CA, Grantham-McGregor SM: Determinants of Aggressive and Prosocial Behaviour Among Jamaican Schoolboys. West Indian Medical J 2007, 56:34-41.
• [51]Byrne BM, Baron P, Larsson B, Melin L: Measuring depression for Swedish nonclinical adolescents: factorial validity and equivalence of the Beck Depression Inventory across gender. Scand J Psychol 1996, 37:37-45.
• [52]Eamon MK: Influences and Mediators of the Effect of Poverty on Young Adolescent Depressive Symptoms. J Youth & Adolescence 2002, 31:231.
• [53]Jenkins S, Goodness K, Buhrmester D: Gender Differences in Early Adolescents' Relationship Qualities, Self-Efficacy, and Depression Symptoms. J Early Adolescence 2002, 22:277-309.
• [54]Lewinsohn PM, Roberts RE, Seeley JR, Rohde P, Gotlib IH, Hops H: Adolescent psychopathology: II. Psychosocial risk factors for depression. J Abnorm Psychol 1994, 103:302-315.
• [55]Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR, Hibbard J, Rohde P, Sack WH: Cross-sectional and prospective relationships between physical morbidity and depression in older adolescents. J Am Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 1996, 35:1120-1129.
• [56]Lewinsohn PM, Rohde P, Seeley JR: Major depressive disorder in older adolescents: prevalence, risk factors, and clinical implications. Clin Psychol Rev 1998, 18:765-794.
• [57]Lowe GA, Lipps GE, Abel W: Depression Among Fourth-Form Students in Three High Schools in Kingston, Jamaica. Caribbean J Psychology 2005, 2:32-49.
• [58]Lowe GA, Lipps GE, Halliday S, Morris A, Clarke N, Wilson RN: Depressive Symptoms among Fourth Form Students in St. Kitts and Nevis High Schools. The Scientific World J: Child Health & Human Dev 2009, 9:149-157.
• [59]Martikainen P, Adda J, Ferrie J, Davey-Smith G, Marmot M: Effects of Income and Wealth on GHQ Depression and Poor Self-Rated Health in White Collar Women and Men in the Whtiehall II Study. J Epidemiol Community Health 2003, 57:718-723.
• [60]West P, Sweeting H: Fifteen, female and stressed: changing patterns of psychological distress over time. J Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines 2003, 44:399-411.
• [61]Morgan KA, Brodie-Walker SN: Impact of environment and behaviour on self-esteem in Jamaican adolescent girls. West Indian Medical J 2008, 57:470-475.
• [62]VanVoorhis-Wilson CR, Blumentritt TL: Psychometric properties of the beck depression inventory-II in a clinically-identified sample of mexican american adolescents. J Child Fam Stud 2007, 16:789-798.
• [63]Anderson BJ, Edelestien SJ, Walders-Abramson N, Levitt-Katz L, Yasuda P, Lavietes SJ, Trief P, Toleffson S, Vuldapoom-McKay S, Kringas P, et al.: Depressive Symptoms and Quality of Life in Adolescents With Type 2 Diabetes: Baseline data from the TODAY study. Diabetes Care 2011, 34:2205-2007.
• [64]Pranjic N, Bajraktarevic A: Depression and suicide ideation among secondary school adolescents involved in school bullying. Primary Health Care Res & Dev 2010, 11:349-362.
• [65]Iosue M, Carli V, D'Aulerio M, Basilico F, Di Domenico A, Recchia L, Wasserman C, Hoven C, Sarchiapone M, Wasserman D: P-1426 - Depression and suicidal ideation among italian adolescents. Preliminary results from the SEYLE project [abstract]. Eur Psychiatry 2012, 27:1.
• [66]Goverment of Jamaica: National Statement of the Jamaican Delegation to 2nd Ministerial Review Conference on the Geneva Declaration on Armed Violence and Development.
• [67]Hankin B, Abramson L, Moffit T, Silva P, McGee R, Angell K: Development of Depression from Preadolescence to Young Adulthood: Emerging Gender Differences in a 10-Year Longitudinal Study. J Abnorm Psychol 1998, 107:128-140.
• [68]Caricom Commission on Youth Development: Eye on the Future: Investing in youth now for tommorrow's community. 2010.
• [69]Crawford-Brown C: Parenting in the Jamaican Society. In Who Will Save Our Children?. Edited by Crawford-Brown C. Kingston, Jamaica: Canoe; 1999:91-116.
• [70]Leo-Rhynie E: Class, race and gender issues in child rearing in the Caribbean. In Caribbean families: Diversity among ethnic groups. Edited by Roopnarine JL, Brown J. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex; 1997:25-55.
• [71]O'Connor TG, Scott SBC: Parenting and Outcomes for Children. 2007.
• [72]Statistical Office: St. Vincent and the Grenadines Population and Housing Census Report 2001. Kingstown: St. Vincent and the Grenadines; 2001.
• [73]UNICEF: Roving Caregivers - Providing Early Childhood Care and Stimulation Right at Home!. UNICEF; 2012.
• [74]UNICEF: The State of the World's Children. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/latinamerica.html webcite
• [75]Chevannes B, Brown J: Why man stay so: An examination of gender socialization in the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: Caribbean Child Development Centre, The University of the West Indies; 1998.
• [76]United Nations Children's Fund: Situational Analysis on Gender Disparities in Jamaica. Geneva, Switzerland: UNICEF; 2007.