Assessment of anorexia nervosa: an overview of universal issues and contextual challenges

Journal of Eating Disorders

Sarah Maguire¹  Lois J Surgenor² 

[1] Centre for Eating and Dieting Disorders, University of Sydney, 92-94 Parramatta Road, Camberdown, New South Wales 2050, Australia;Department of Psychological Medicine, University of Otago at Christchurch, 4 Oxford Terrace, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand

关键词: Eating disorders;    Assessment;    Anorexia nervosa;   

Others  :  801398
DOI  :  10.1186/2050-2974-1-29

 received in 2012-12-02, accepted in 2013-06-03,  发布年份 2013

【 摘 要 】

Aim

Anorexia Nervosa (AN) is a complex and clinically challenging syndrome. Intended for specialist audiences, this narrative review aims to summarise the available literature related to assessment in the adult patient context, synthesising both research evidence and clinical consensus guidelines.

Method

We provide a review of the available literature on specialist assessment of AN focusing on common trajectories into assessment, obstacles accessing assessment, common presenting issues and barriers to the assessment process, the necessary scope of assessment, and tools and techniques. It describes the further step of synthesising assessment information in ways that can inform resultant care plans.

Results

In addition to assessment of core behaviours and diagnostic skills, considerations for the expert assessor include the functions of primary care, systemic and personal barriers, knowledge of current assessment tools and research pertaining to comorbid pathology in AN, assessing severity of illness, role of family at assessment, as well as medical, nutritional and compulsory elements of assessment.

Conclusion

Comprehensive assessment of AN in the current healthcare context still remains largely the remit of the specialist ED clinician. Assessment should remain an on-going process, paying particular attention to available empirical evidence, thereby reducing the gap between research and practice.

【 授权许可】

   
2013 Surgenor and Maguire; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Harris EC, Barraclough B: Excess mortality of mental disorder. Br J Psychiatry 1998, 173:11-53.
• [2]Button EJ, Chadalavada B, Palmer RL: Mortality and predictors of death in a cohort of patients presenting to an eating disorders service. Int J Eat Disord 2010, 43:387-392.
• [3]Butterfly Foundation: Paying the Price: The economic and social impact of eating disorders. Butterfly Foundation: Melbourne; 2012. Available from: http://www.thebutterflyfoundation.org.au webcite
• [4]Dooley-Hash S, Lipson SK, Walton MA, Cunningham RM: Increased emergency department use by adolescents and young adults with eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:883-890.
• [5]Simon J, Schmidt U, Pilling S: The health service use and cost of eating disorders. Psychol Med 2005, 35:1543-1551.
• [6]House J, Schmidt U, Craig M, Landau S, Simic M, Nicholls D, Hugo P, Berelowitz M, Eisler I: Comparison of specialist and nonspecialist care pathways for adolescents with anorexia nervosa and related eating disorders. In J Eat Disord 2012, 45:949-956.
• [7]Marks P, Beumont P, Birmingham CL: GPs managing patients with eating disorders. a tiered approach. Aust Fam Physician 2003, 32:509-514.
• [8]Allen KL, Fursland A, Watson H, Byrne SM: Eating disorder diagnoses in general practice settings: comparison with structured clinical interview and self-report questionnaires. J Ment Health 2011, 20:270-280.
• [9]Hebebrand J, Bulik CM: Critical appraisal of the provisional DSM-5 criteria for anorexia nervosa and an alternative proposal. Int J Eat Disord 2011, 44:665-678.
• [10]Hill LS, Reid F, Morgan JF, Lacey JH: SCOFF, the development of an eating disorder screening questionnaire. Int J Eat Disord 2010, 43:344-351.
• [11]Treasure J, Russell G: The case for early intervention in anorexia nervosa: theoretical exploration of maintaining factors. Br J Psychiatry 2011, 199:5-7.
• [12]Von Holle A, Pinheiro AP, Thornton LM, Klump KL, Berrettini WH, Brandt H, Crawford S, Crow S, Fichter MM, Halmi KA, Johnson C, Kaplan AS, Keel P, La Via M, Mitchell J, Strober M, Woodside DB, Kaye WH, Bulik CM: Temporal patterns of recovery across eating disorder subtypes. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2008, 42:108-117.
• [13]Hart LM, Granillo MT, Jorm AF, Paxton SJ: Unmet need for treatment in the eating disorders: a systematic review of eating disorder specific treatment seeking among community cases. Clin Psychol Rev 2011, 31:727-735.
• [14]Waller G, Schmidt U, Treasure J, Murray K, Aleyna J, Emanuelli F, Crockett J, Yeomans M: Problems across care pathways in specialist adult eating disorder services. Psychiatr Bull 2009, 33:26-29.
• [15]Tatham M, Stringer H, Perera S, Waller G: "Do you still want to be seen?": the pros and cons of active waiting list management. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:57-62.
• [16]Carmen D, Shah S, Gilbert S, Russell F: Improving attendance at an eating disorder clinic by means of an "opt in" letter. Clin Psych Forum 2007, 173:22-25.
• [17]Surgenor LJ, Plumridge EW, Horn J: 'Knowing one's self' anorexic: implications for therapeutic practice. Int J Eat Disord 2003, 33:22-32.
• [18]Nordbo RH, Gulliksen KS, Espeset EM, Skarderud F, Geller J, Holte A: Expanding the concept of motivation to change: the content of patients' wish to recover from anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 2008, 41:635-642.
• [19]Waller G: The myths of motivation: time for a fresh look at some received wisdom in the eating disorders? Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:1-16.
• [20]Knowles L, Anokhina A, Serpell L: Motivational interventions in the eating disorders: What is the evidence? Int J Eat Disord 2012, 46:97-107.
• [21]Rieger E, Touyz SW, Beumont PJV: The anorexia nervosa stages of change questionnaire (ANSOCQ): Information regarding its psychometric properties. Int J Eat Disord 2002, 32:24-38.
• [22]Morgan JF, Jones WR, Saeidi S: Knowledge and attitudes of psychiatrists towards eating disorders. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2012, 21:84-88.
• [23]Stewart MC, Schiavo RS, Herzog DB, Franko DL: Stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination of women with anorexia nervosa. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2008, 16:311-318.
• [24]Reid M, Williams S, Burr J: Perspectives on eating disorders and service provision: A qualitative study of healthcare professionals. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2010, 18:390-398.
• [25]Album D, Westin S: Do diseases have a prestige hierarchy? A survey among physicians and medical students. Soc Sci Med 2008, 66:182-188.
• [26]Sly R: What's in a name? Classifying 'the dropout' from treatment for anorexia nervosa. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2009, 17:405-407.
• [27]Strober M, Freeman R, Morrell W: The long-term course of severe anorexia nervosa in adolescents: survival analysis of recovery, relapse, and outcome predictors over 10–15 years in a prospective study. Int J Eat Disord 1997, 22:339-360.
• [28]Baran SA, Weltzin TE, Kaye WH: Low discharge weight and outcome in anorexia nervosa. Am J Psychiatry 1995, 152:1070-1072.
• [29]Watkins CE Jr: The supervision of psychotherapy supervisor trainees. Am J Psychother 1994, 48:417-431.
• [30]Wallier J, Vibert S, Berthoz S, Huas C, Hubert T, Godart N: Dropout from inpatient treatment for anorexia nervosa: critical review of the literature. Int J Eat Disord 2009, 42:636-647.
• [31]Hudson JI, Hiripi E, Pope HG Jr, Kessler RC: The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biol Psychiatry 2007, 61:348-358.
• [32]Eddy KT, Dorer DJ, Franko DL, Tahilani K, Thompson-Brenner H, Herzog DB: Diagnostic crossover in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: implications for DSM-V. Am J Psychiatry 2008, 165:245-250.
• [33]Keys A, Brozek J, Henschel A, Mickelsen O, Taylor HL: The biology of human starvation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press; 1950.
• [34]American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). American Psychiatric Publishing: Washington, DC; 2013.
• [35]Uher R, Rutter M: Classification of feeding and eating disorders: review of evidence and proposals for ICD-11. World Psychiatry 2012, 11:80-92.
• [36]Maguire S, Touyz S, Surgenor L, Crosby RD, Engel SG, Lacey H, Heywood-Everett S, Grange DL: The clinician administered staging instrument for anorexia nervosa: development and psychometric properties. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:390-399.
• [37]Soh N, Touyz S, Surgenor LJ: Eating and body image disturbances across cultures. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2006, 14:54-65.
• [38]Wang J, Thornton JC, Russell M, Burastero S, Heymsfield S, Pierson RN Jr: Asians have lower body mass index (BMI) but higher percent body fat than do whites: comparisons of anthropometric measurements. Am J Clin Nutr 1994, 60:23-28.
• [39]Ung EK, Lee S, Kua EH: Anorexia nervosa and bulimia–a Singapore perspective. Singapore Med J 1997, 38:332-335.
• [40]Soh NL, Touyz S, Dobbins T, Surgenor L, Clarke S, Kohn M, Lee EL, Leow V, Rieger E, Ung KE, Walter G: Body image disturbance in young North European and East Asian women with and without eating disorders in Australia and in Singapore. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2008, 16:287-296.
• [41]Soh N, Surgenor LJ, Touyz S, Walter G: Eating disorders across two cultures: does the expression of psychological control vary? Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2007, 41:351-358.
• [42]Rhys Jones W, Morgan JF: Eating disorders in men: a review of the literature. J Public Ment Health 2010, 9:23-31.
• [43]Siegel JH, Hardoff D, Golden NH, Shenker IR: Medical complications in male adolescents with anorexia nervosa. J Adolesc Health 1995, 16:448-453.
• [44]Carlat DJ, Camargo CA Jr, Herzog DB: Eating disorders in males: a report on 135 patients. Am J Psychiatry 1997, 154:1127-1132.
• [45]Nunez-Navarro A, Aguera Z, Krug I, Jimenez-Murcia S, Sanchez I, Araguz N, Gorwood P, Granero R, Penelo E, Karwautz A, Moragas L, Saldana S, Treasure J, Menchon JM, Fernandez-Aranda F: Do men with eating disorders differ from women in clinics, psychopathology and personality? Eur Eat Disord Rev 2012, 20:23-31.
• [46]Marks LI: Deconstructing locus of control: Implications for practitioners. J Counsel Devel 1998, 76:251-260.
• [47]Strober M, Freeman R, Lampert C, Diamond J, Teplinsky C, DeAntonio M: Are there gender differences in core symptoms, temperament, and short-term prospective outcome in anorexia nervosa? Int J Eat Disord 2006, 39:570-575.
• [48]Gueguen J, Godart N, Chambry J, Brun-Eberentz A, Foulon C, Divac Phd SM, Guelfi JD, Rouillon F, Falissard B, Huas C: Severe anorexia nervosa in men: comparison with severe AN in women and analysis of mortality. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:537-545.
• [49]Keel PK, Brown TA: The impact of relationships on the association between sexual orientation and disordered eating in men. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:792-799.
• [50]Garner DM, Olmsted MP, Bohr Y, Garfinkel PE: The eating attitudes test: Psychometric features and clinical correlates. Psychol Med 1982, 12:871-878.
• [51]Garner DM: Eating disorder inventory-3. Lutz, Florida: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.; 2004.
• [52]Beglin S, Fairburn CG: Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDQ-Q 6.0). In Cognitive behaviour therapy and eating disorders. Edited by Fairburn CG. New York: Guildford Press; 2008:265-308.
• [53]Sunday SR, Halmi KA, Einhorn A: The Yale-Brown-Cornell Eating Disorder Scale: a new scale to assess eating disorder symptomatology. Int J Eat Disord 1995, 18:237-245.
• [54]Clausen L, Rosenvinge JH, Friborg O, Rokkedal K: Validating the Eating Disorder Inventory-3 (EDI-3): A Comparison Between 561 Female Eating Disorders Patients and 878 Females from the General Population. J Psychopath Behav Assess 2011, 33:101-110.
• [55]First MB, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Williams JBW: Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders, Clinical Version (SCID-CV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press Inc.; 1996.
• [56]Fairburn CG, Cooper Z: The eating disorders examination. In Binge Eating: Nature, Assessment and Treatment. Edited by Fairburn CG, Wilson GT. New York: Guildford Press; 1993:317-360.
• [57]Mattar L, Huas C, Duclos J, Apfel A, Godart N: Relationship between malnutrition and depression or anxiety in Anorexia Nervosa: a critical review of the literature. J Affect Disord 2011, 132:311-318.
• [58]Wolk SL, Loeb KL, Walsh BT: Assessment of patients with anorexia nervosa: interview versus self-report. Int J Eat Disord 2005, 37:92-99.
• [59]Allen S, Dalton WT: Treatment of eating disorders in primary care: a systematic review. J Health Psychol 2011, 16:1165-1176.
• [60]Binford RB, Le Grange D, Jellar CC: Eating Disorders Examination versus Eating Disorders Examination-Questionnaire in adolescents with full and partial-syndrome bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 2005, 37:44-49.
• [61]Le Grange D, Crosby RD, Engel SG, Cao L, Ndungu A, Crow SJ, Peterson CB, Mitchell JE, Wonderlich SA: DSM-IV-defined anorexia nervosa versus subthreshold anorexia nervosa (EDNOS-AN). Eur Eat Disord Rev 2013, 21:1-7.
• [62]Nordbo RH, Espeset EM, Gulliksen KS, Skarderud F, Geller J, Holte A: Reluctance to recover in anorexia nervosa. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2012, 20:60-67.
• [63]Maguire S, Le Grange D, Surgenor LJ, Marks P, Lacey H, Touyz S: Staging anorexia nervosa: conceptualising illness severity. Early Intervent Psych 2008, 2:3-10.
• [64]Touyz S, Thornton C, Rieger E, George L, Beumont P: The incorporation of the stage of change model in the day hospital treatment of patients with anorexia nervosa. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2003, 12(Suppl 1):I65-I71.
• [65]Loeb KL, Jones J, Roberto CA, Sonia Gugga S, Marcus SM, Attia E, Timothy Walsh B: Adolescent-adult discrepancies on the eating disorder examination: a function of developmental stage or severity of illness? Int J Eat Disord 2011, 44:567-572.
• [66]Milos G, Spindler A, Schnyder U, Martz J, Hoek HW, Willi J: Incidence of severe anorexia nervosa in Switzerland: 40 years of development. Int J Eat Disord 2004, 35:250-258.
• [67]Treasure J, Tchanturia K, Harrison A, Davies H, Roberts M, Oldershaw A, Stahl D, Morris R, Schmidt U: Cognitive flexibility and clinical severity in eating disorders. Plos One (Electronic Resource) 2001, 6:e20462.
• [68]Bauer S, Winn S, Schmidt U, Kordy H: Construction, scoring, and validation of the short evaluation of eating disorders (SEED). Eur Eat Disord Rev 2005, 13:191-200.
• [69]Treasure J, Sepulveda AR, MacDonald P, Whitaker W, Lopez C, Zabala M, Kyriacou O, Todd G: The assessment of the family of people with eating disorders. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2008, 16:247-255.
• [70]Schmidt U, Treasure J: Anorexia nervosa: valued and visible. A cognitive-interpersonal maintenance model and its implications for research and practice. Br J Clin Psychol 2006, 45:343-366.
• [71]Fisher CA, Hetrick SE, Rushford N: Family therapy for anorexia nervosa. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010. Issue 4: Art. No: CD004780
• [72]Godart NT, Perdereau F, Rein Z, Berthoz S, Wallier J, Jeammet P, Flament MF: Comorbidity studies of eating disorders and mood disorders. Critical review of the literature. J Affect Disord 2007, 97:37-49.
• [73]Kennedy SH, Kaplan AS, Garfinkel PE, Rockert W, Toner B, Abbey SE: Depression in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa: discriminating depressive symptoms and episodes. J Psychosom Res 1994, 38:773-782.
• [74]Mischoulon D, Eddy KT, Keshaviah A, Dinescu D, Ross SL, Kass AE, Franko DL, Herzog DB: Depression and Eating Disorders. J Affect Disord 2011, 130:470-477.
• [75]McElroy SL, Frye MA, Hellemann G, Altshuler L, Leverich GS, Suppes T, Keck PE, Nolen WA, Kupka R, Post RM: Prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in 875 patients with bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord 2011, 128:191-198.
• [76]Preti A, Rocchi MB, Sisti D, Camboni MV, Miotto P: A comprehensive meta-analysis of the risk of suicide in eating disorders. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2011, 124:6-17.
• [77]Bodell LP, Joiner TE, Keel PK: Comorbidity-independent risk for suicidality increases with bulimia nervosa but not with anorexia nervosa. J Psychiatr Res 2013, 47:617-621.
• [78]Hawton K, Casanas ICC, Haw C, Saunders K: Risk factors for suicide in individuals with depression: A systematic review. J Affect Disord 2013, 147:17-28.
• [79]Forcano L, Alvarez E, Santamaria JJ, Jimenez-Murcia S, Granero R, Penelo E, Alonso P, Sanchez I, Menchon JM, Ulman F, Bulik CM, Fernandez-Aranda F: Suicide attempts in anorexia nervosa subtypes. Compr Psychiatry 2011, 52:352-358.
• [80]Favaro A, Santonastaso P: Suicidality in eating disorders: clinical and psychological correlates. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1997, 95:508-514.
• [81]Rosling AM, Sparen P, Norring C, von Knorring AL: Mortality of eating disorders: a follow-up study of treatment in a specialist unit 1974–2000. Int J Eat Disord 2011, 44:304-310.
• [82]Papadopoulos FC, Ekbom A, Brandt L, Ekselius L: Excess mortality, causes of death and prognostic factors in anorexia nervosa. Br J Psychiatry 2009, 194:10-17.
• [83]Morgan JF, Ahene P, Lacey JH: Salinophagia in anorexia nervosa: case reports. Int J Eat Disord 2010, 43:190-192.
• [84]Morgan JF, Lacey JH: Scratching and fasting: a study of pruritus and anorexia nervosa. Br J Dermatol 1999, 140:453-456.
• [85]Morgan JF, Lacey JH: Blood-letting in anorexia nervosa: a case study. Int J Eat Disord 2000, 27:483-485.
• [86]Skegg K: Self-harm. Lancet 2005, 366:1471-1483.
• [87]Steinglass JE, Sysko R, Glasofer D, Albano AM, Simpson HB, Walsh BT: Rationale for the application of exposure and response prevention to the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Int J Eat Disord 2011, 44:134-141.
• [88]Swinbourne JM, Touyz SW: The co-morbidity of eating disorders and anxiety disorders: a review. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2007, 15:253-274.
• [89]Touyz S, Swinbourne J, Hunt C, Abbott M, Russell J, St Clare T: The comorbidity between eating disorders and anxiety disorders: prevalence in an eating disorder sample and anxiety disorder sample. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2012, 46:118-131.
• [90]Pallister E, Waller G: Anxiety in the eating disorders: understanding the overlap. Clin Psychol Rev 2008, 28:366-386.
• [91]Godart NT, Flament MF, Perdereau F, Jeammet P: Comorbidity between eating disorders and anxiety disorders: a review. Int J Eat Disord 2002, 32:253-270.
• [92]Fairburn CG, Cooper Z, Shafran R: Cognitive behaviour therapy for eating disorders: a "transdiagnostic" theory and treatment. Behav Res Ther 2003, 41:509-528.
• [93]Yackobovitch-Gavan M, Golan M, Valevski A, Kreitler S, Bachar E, Lieblich A, Mitrani E, Weizman A, Stein D: An integrative quantitative model of factors influencing the course of anorexia nervosa over time. Int J Eat Disord 2009, 42:306-317.
• [94]Krug I, Pinheiro AP, Bulik C, Jimenez-Murcia S, Granero R, Penelo E, Masuet C, Aguera Z, Fernandez-Aranda F: Lifetime substance abuse, family history of alcohol abuse/dependence and novelty seeking in eating disorders: comparison study of eating disorder subgroups. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2009, 63:82-87.
• [95]Herzog DB, Franko DL, Dorer DJ, Keel PK, Jackson S, Manzo MP: Drug abuse in women with eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2006, 39:364-368.
• [96]O'Brien KM, Vincent NK: Psychiatric comorbidity in anorexia and bulimia nervosa: nature, prevalence, and causal relationships. Clin Psychol Rev 2003, 23:57-74.
• [97]Baker JH, Thornton LM, Strober M, Brandt H, Crawford S, Fichter MM, Halmi KA, Johnson C, Jones I, Kaplan AS, Klump KL, Mitchell JE, Treasure J, Woodside DB, Berrettini WH, Kaye WH, Bulik CM: Temporal sequence of comorbid alcohol use disorder and anorexia nervosa. Addict Behav 2013, 38:1704-1709.
• [98]Bulik CM, Klump KL, Thornton L, Kaplan AS, Devlin B, Fichter MM, Halmi KA, Strober M, Woodside DB, Crow S, Mitchell JE, Rotondo A, Mauri M, Cassano GB, Keel PK, Berrettini WH, Kaye WH: Alcohol use disorder comorbidity in eating disorders: a multicenter study. J Clin Psychiatry 2004, 65:1000-1006.
• [99]Root TL, Pisetsky EM, Thornton L, Lichtenstein P, Pedersen NL, Bulik CM: Patterns of co-morbidity of eating disorders and substance use in Swedish females. Psychol Med 2010, 40:105-115.
• [100]Pinter O, Probst M, Vandereycken W, Pieters G, Goris M: The predictive value of body mass index for the weight evolution in anorexia nervosa. Eat Weight Disord 2004, 9:232-235.
• [101]National Institute for Clinical Excellence: Eating disorders: Core interventions in the treatment and management of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and related eating disorders. London: National Institute for Clinical Excellence; 2004.
• [102]Bodell LP, Mayer LE: Percent body fat is a risk factor for relapse in anorexia nervosa: a replication study. Int J Eat Disord 2011, 44:118-123.
• [103]Flegal KM, Wei R, Ogden C: Weight-for-stature compared with body mass index-for-age growth charts for the United States from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Am J Clin Nutr 2002, 75:761-766.
• [104]Lindblad F, Lindberg L, Hjern A: Improved survival in adolescent patients with anorexia nervosa: a comparison of two Swedish national cohorts of female inpatients. Am J Psychiatry 2006, 163:1433-1435.
• [105]Nicholls D, Hudson L, Mahomed F: Managing anorexia nervosa. Arch Dis Child 2011, 96:977-982.
• [106]Katzman DK: Medical complications in adolescents with anorexia nervosa: a review of the literature. Int J Eat Disord 2005, 37(Suppl):S52-S59. discussion S87-9
• [107]Lesinskiene S, Barkus A, Ranceva N, Dembinskas A: A meta-analysis of heart rate and QT interval alteration in anorexia nervosa. World J Biol Psychia 2008, 9:86-91.
• [108]Zipfel S, Sammet I, Rapps N, Herzog W, Herpertz S, Martens U: Gastrointestinal disturbances in eating disorders: clinical and neurobiological aspects. Auton Neurosci 2006, 129:99-106.
• [109]Casiero D, Frishman WH: Cardiovascular complications of eating disorders. Cardiol Rev 2006, 14:227-231.
• [110]Montecchi PP, Custureri V, Polimeni A, Cordaro M, Costa L, Marinucci S, Montecchi F: Oral manifestations in a group of young patients with anorexia nervosa. Eat Weight Disord 2003, 8:164-167.
• [111]Sylvester CJ, Forman SF: Clinical practice guidelines for treating restrictive eating disorder patients during medical hospitalization. Curr Opin Pediatr 2008, 20:390-397.
• [112]Mascolo M, Trent S, Colwell C, Mehler PS: What the emergency department needs to know when caring for your patients with eating disorders. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:977-981. Early view - Online Only
• [113]Ayton A, Keen C, Lask B: Pros and cons of using the Mental Health Act for severe eating disorders in adolescents. Eur Eat Disord Rev 2009, 17:14-23.
• [114]Carney T, Tait D, Touyz S, Ingvarson M, Saunders D, Wakefield A: Managing anorexia nervosa: Clinical, legal, and social perspectives on involuntary treatment. New York: Nova; 2006.
• [115]Carney T, Tait D, Touyz S: Coercion is coercion? Reflections on trends in the use of compulsion in treating anorexia nervosa. Australas Psychiatry 2007, 15:390-395.
• [116]Guarda AS, Pinto AM, Coughlin JW, Hussain S, Haug NA, Heinberg LJ: Perceived coercion and change in perceived need for admission in patients hospitalized for eating disorders. Am J Psychiatry 2007, 164:108-114.
• [117]Tan JO, Stewart A, Fitzpatrick R, Hope T: Attitudes of patients with anorexia nervosa to compulsory treatment and coercion. Int J Law Psychiatry 2010, 33:13-19.
• [118]Gody A, Haynes SN: Clinical case formulation: Introduction to a special section. Eur J Psychol Assess 2011, 27:1-3.
• [119]Swain-Campbell NR, Surgenor LJ, Snell DL: An analysis of consumer perspectives following contact with an eating-disorders service. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2001, 35:99-103.
• [120]Holte A, Gulliksen KS, Espeset EM, Nordbo RH, Skarderud F, Geller J: Preferred therapist characteristics in treatment of anorexia nervosa: The patient's perspective. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:932-941. Early View
• [121]Strober M, Johnson C: The need for complex ideas in anorexia nervosa: why biology, environment, and psyche all matter, why therapists make mistakes, and why clinical benchmarks are needed for managing weight correction. Int J Eat Disord 2012, 45:155-178.
• [122]Mickan S, Burls A, Glasziou P: Patterns of 'leakage' in the utilisation of clinical guidelines: a systematic review. Postgrad Med J 2011, 87:670-679.
• [123]Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists Clinical Practice Guidelines Team for Anorexia Nervosa: Australian and New Zealand clinical practice guidelines for the treatment of anorexia nervosa. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2004, 38:659-670.
• [124]American Psychiatric Association: Practice guidelines for the treatment of patients. Am J Psychiatry 2000, 157:1-39.