Control and maintenance of mammalian cell size

BMC Cell Biology

Stephen Cooper¹ 

[1]Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor MI 48109-0620, USA

关键词: continuum model;    shift-up;    linear growth;    exponential growth;    cell size;    cell cycle;   

Others  :  1088887
DOI  :  10.1186/1471-2121-5-35

 received in 2004-05-25, accepted in 2004-09-29,  发布年份 2004

【 摘 要 】

Background

Conlon and Raff propose that mammalian cells grow linearly during the division cycle. According to Conlon and Raff, cells growing linearly do not need a size checkpoint to maintain a constant distribution of cell sizes. If there is no cell-size-control system, then exponential growth is not allowed, as exponential growth, according to Conlon and Raff, would require a cell-size-control system.

Discussion

A reexamination of the model and experiments of Conlon and Raff indicates that exponential growth is fully compatible with cell size maintenance, and that mammalian cells have a system to regulate and maintain cell size that is related to the process of S-phase initiation. Mammalian cell size control and its relationship to growth rate–faster growing cells are larger than slower growing cells–is explained by the initiation of S phase occurring at a relatively constant cell size coupled with relatively invariant S- and G2-phase times as interdivision time varies.

Summary

This view of the mammalian cell cycle, the continuum model, explains the mass growth pattern during the division cycle, size maintenance, size determination, and the kinetics of cell-size change following a shift-up from slow to rapid growth.

【 授权许可】

   
2004 Cooper; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

Figure 5.

Figure 6.

Figure 7.

Figure 8.

Figure 9.

Figure 10.

Figure 11.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Conlon I, Raff M: Differences in the mammalian cell and yeast cells coordinate cell growth and cell-cycle progression. J Biol 2003, 2:7. BioMed Central Full Text
• [2]Weitzman JB: Growing without a size checkpoint. J Biol 2003, 2:3.
• [3]Cooper S: The continuum model: statistical implications. J Theor Biol 1982, 94:783-800.
• [4]Cooper S: Toward a standard system for the mammalian cell cycle. ASM News 2000, 66:71-75.
• [5]Cooper S: Minimally disturbed, multi-cycle, and reproducible synchrony using a eukaryotic "baby machine". Bioessays 2002, 24:499-501.
• [6]Helmstetter CE, Thornton M, Romero A, Eward KL: Synchrony in human, mouse, and bacterial cell cultures. Cell Cycle 2003, 2:42-45.
• [7]Thornton M, Eward KL, Helmstetter CE: Production of minimally disturbed synchronous cultures of hematopoietic cells. Biotechniques 2002, 32:1098-1105.
• [8]Schaechter M, Maaløe O, Kjeldgaard NO: Dependency on medium and temperature of cell size and chemical composition during balanced growth of Salmonella typhimurium. J Gen Microbiol 1958, 19:592-606.
• [9]Cooper S: Leucine uptake and protein synthesis are exponential during the division cycle of Escherichia coli B/r. J Bacteriol 1988, 170:436-438.
• [10]Cooper S: What is the bacterial growth law during the division cycle? J Bacteriol 1988, 170:5001-5005.
• [11]Cooper S: Length extension in growing yeast: is growth exponential?–yes. Microbiology 1998, 144:263-265.
• [12]Cooper S: Bacterial Growth and Division. San Diego: Academic Press; 1991.
• [13]Cooper S: Mammalian cells are not synchronized in G1-phase by starvation or inhibition: considerations of the fundamental concept of G1-phase synchronization. Cell Prolif 1998, 31:9-16.
• [14]Cooper S: Reappraisal of serum starvation, the restriction point, G0, and G1-phase arrest points. FASEB J 2003, 17:333-340.
• [15]Cooper S: Rethinking synchronization of mammalian cells for cell-cycle analysis. Cell Mol Life Sci 2003, 60:1099-1106.
• [16]Helmstetter C, Cooper S, Pierucci O, Revelas E: On the bacterial life sequence. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1968, 33:809-822.
• [17]Helmstetter CE, Cooper S: DNA synthesis during the division cycle of rapidly growing Escherichia coli B/r. J Mol Biol 1968, 31:507-518.
• [18]Cooper S, Helmstetter CE: Chromosome replication and the division cycle of Escherichia coli B/r. J Mol Biol 1968, 31:519-540.
• [19]Cooper S: Cell division and DNA replication following a shift to a richer medium. J Mol Biol 1969, 43:1-11.
• [20]Donachie WD: Relationship between cell size and time of initiation of DNA replication. Nature 1968, 219:1077-1079.
• [21]Helmstetter C: Rate of DNA synthesis during the division cycle of E. coli B/r. J Mol Biol 1967, 24:417-427.
• [22]Helmstetter CE, Pierucci O: Cell division during inhibition of deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 1968, 95:1627-1633.
• [23]Cooper S: Does the initiation mass for DNA replication in Escherichia coli vary with growth rate? Mol Microbiol 1997, 26:1138-1141.
• [24]Cooper S: A unifying model for the G1 period in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Nature 1979, 280:17-19.
• [25]Cooper S: Model for the determination of growth rate in Escherichia coli. J Theor Biol 1970, 28:151-154.
• [26]Cooper S: On the interpretation of the shortening of the G1-phase by overexpression of cyclins in mammalian cells. Exp Cell Res 1998, 238:110-115.
• [27]Kjeldgaard NO, Maaløe O, Schaecter M: The transition between different physiological states during balanced growth of Salmonella typhimurium. J Gen Microbiol 1958, 19:607-616.
• [28]Cooper S: Reappraisal of G1-phase arrest and synchronization by lovastatin. Cell Biol Int 2002, 26:715-727.
• [29]Cooper S, Yu C, Shayman JA: Phosphorylation-dephosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein not necessary for passage through the mammalian cell division cycle. IUBMB Life 1999, 48:225-230.
• [30]Cooper S: On G0 and cell cycle controls. Bioessays 1987, 7:220-223.
• [31]Cooper S: G1 and S phase gene expression cannot be analyzed in mammalian cells synchronized by inhibition. Microb Comp Genomics 1997, 2:269-273.
• [32]Cooper S: On the proposal of a G0 phase and the restriction point. FASEB J 1998, 12:367-373.
• [33]Cooper S: Revisiting the relationship of the mammalian G1 phase to cell differentiation. J Theor Biol 2001, 208:399-402.
• [34]Cooper S: Cell cycle analysis and microarrays. Trends in Genetics 2002, 18:289-290.
• [35]Cooper S: How the change from FLM to FACS affected our understanding of the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Cell Cycle 2003, 2:157-159.
• [36]Cooper S: The continuum model: application to G1-arrest and G(O). In Cell Growth. Edited by Nicolini C. New York: Plenum Press; 1981:315-336.
• [37]Cooper S: The continuum model and G1-control of the mammalian cell cycle. Prog Cell Cycle Res 2000, 4:27-39.
• [38]Cooper S, Shayman JA: Revisiting retinoblastoma protein phosphorylation during the mammalian cell cycle. Cell Mol Life Sci 2001, 58:580-595.
• [39]Cooper S, Shedden K: Microarray analysis of gene expression during the cell cycle. Cell & Chromosome 2003, 2:1-12. BioMed Central Full Text
• [40]Cooper S: The Origin and meaning of the Schaeter-Maaløe-Kjeldgaard experiments. J Gen Microbiol 1993, 139:1117-1124.