Does neighbourhood social capital aid in levelling the social gradient in the health and well-being of children and adolescents? A literature review

BMC Public Health

Lea Maes⁷  Candace Currie¹  Vladimir Kebza³  Sara Darias Curvo²  Stefán Hrafn Jónsson⁸  Giorgio Barbareschi⁶  Caroline Costongs⁶  Veerle Stevens⁴  Bart De Clercq⁷  Veerle Vyncke⁵ 

[1] Child and Adolescent Health Research Unit (CAHRU), School of Medicine, University of St Andrews, Medical and Biological Sciences Building, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TF, UK;Universidad de la Laguna, Pabellón de Gobierno, C/Molinos de Agua s/n, 38207, La, Laguna, Spain;National Institute of Public Health, Srobarova 48, 10042, Prague, Czech Republic;The Flemish Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, Gustave Schildknechtstraat 9, 1020, Brussels, Belgium;Present address: Research Foundation – Flanders (FWO), Egmontstraat 5, 1000, Brussels, Belgium;EuroHealthNet, Rue de la loi 67, 1040, Brussels, Belgium;Department of Public Health, Ghent University, De Pintelaan 185 blok A, 9000, Ghent, Belgium;University of Iceland and The Directorate of Health, Saemundargata 101, Reykjavik, Iceland

关键词: Adolescents;    Children;    Neighbourhoods;    Health gradient;    Health inequity;    Social capital;   

Others  :  1162614
DOI  :  10.1186/1471-2458-13-65

 received in 2012-05-29, accepted in 2013-01-07,  发布年份 2013

【 摘 要 】

Background

Although most countries in the European Union are richer and healthier than ever, health inequalities remain an important public health challenge. Health-related problems and premature death have disproportionately been reported in disadvantaged neighbourhoods. Neighbourhood social capital is believed to influence the association between neighbourhood deprivation and health in children and adolescents, making it a potentially interesting concept for policymakers.

Methods

This study aims to review the role of social capital in health inequalities and the social gradient in health and well-being of children and adolescents. A systematic review of published quantitative literature was conducted, focussing on (1) the mediating role of neighbourhood social capital in the relationship between socio-economic status (SES) and health-related outcomes in children and adolescents and (2) the interaction between neighbourhood social capital and socio-economic characteristics in relation to health-related outcomes in children and adolescents. Three electronic databases were searched. Studies executed between 1 January 1990 and 1 September 2011 in Western countries (USA, New Zealand, Australia and Europe) that included a health-related outcome in children or adolescents and a variable that measured neighbourhood social capital were included.

Results

Eight studies met the inclusion criteria for the review. The findings are mixed. Only two of five studies confirmed that neighbourhood social capital mediates the association between neighbourhood deprivation and health and well-being in adolescents. Furthermore, two studies found a significant interaction between neighbourhood socio-economic factors and neighbourhood social capital, which indicates that neighbourhood social capital is especially beneficial for children who reside in deprived neighbourhoods. However, two other studies did not find a significant interaction between SES and neighbourhood social capital. Due to the broad range of studied health-related outcomes, the different operationalisations of neighbourhood social capital and the conceptual overlap between measures of SES and social capital in some studies, the factors that explain these differences in findings remain unclear.

Conclusions

Although the findings of this study should be interpreted with caution, the results suggest that neighbourhood social capital might play a role in the health gradient among children and adolescents. However, only two of the included studies were conducted in Europe. Furthermore, some studies focussed on specific populations and minority groups. To formulate relevant European policy recommendations, further European-focussed research on this issue is needed.

【 授权许可】

   
2013 Vyncke et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Marmot M, Allen J, Goldblatt P, Boyce T, McNeish D, Grady M, Geddes I: Fair society, healthy lives: a strategic review of health inequalities in England Post-2010. In. London: University College London; 2010.
• [2]Mackenbach JP: Health inequalities: Europe in Profile. An independent expert report commissioned by the UK presidency of the EU, In. London: Department of Health; 2006.
• [3]Torsheim T, Currie C, Boyce W, Kalnins I, Overpeck M, Haugland S: Material deprivation and self-rated health: a multilevel study of adolescents from 22 European and North American countries. Social Science & Medicine 2004, 59(1):1-12.
• [4]Wilkinson R, Pickett K: The spirit level: why equality is better for everyone. London: Penguin Books Ltd; 2009.
• [5]Acheson D: Independent inquiry into inequalities in health: report. In. London: HMSO; 1998.
• [6]Dahlgren G, Whitehead M: Policies and Strategies to Promote Social Equity in Health. In. Stockholm, Institute for Future Studies; 1991.
• [7]Whitehead M, Dahlgren G: Concepts and principles for tackling social inequities in health: Levelling up Part 1. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2006.
• [8]Wilkinson R, Marmot M: Social determinants of health: the solid facts. 2nd edition. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2003.
• [9]Lin N: Social capital: a theory of structure and action. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Lin N; 2001.
• [10]Sun X, Rehnberg C, Meng Q: How are individual-level social capital and poverty associated with health equity? A study from two Chinese cities. Int J Equity Health 2009, 8:2.
• [11]Marmot M: The status syndrome. London: Bloomsburry Publishing; 2004.
• [12]Joint Health Surveys Unit: Health Survey for England 1999. London: The Stationery Office; 1999.
• [13]Braveman PA, Cubbin C, Egerter S, Williams DR, Pamuk E: Socioeconomic disparities in health in the United States: what the patterns tell us. American Journal of Public Health 2010, 100(S1):S186-S194.
• [14]Bossuyt N, Gadeyne S, Deboosere P, Van Oyen H: Socio-economic inequalities in health expectancy in Belgium. Public Health 2004, 118(1):3-10.
• [15]De Clercq B, Vyncke V, Hublet A, Elgar FJ, Ravens-Sieberer U, Currie C, Hooghe M, Ieven A, Maes L: Social capital and social inequality in adolescents' health in 601 Flemish communities: A multilevel analysis. Social Science & Medicine 2012, 74(2):202-10.
• [16]Richter M, Moor I, van Lenthe FJ: Explaining socioeconomic differences in adolescent self-rated health: the contribution of material, psychosocial and behavioural factors. J Epidemiol Community Health 2011.
• [17]Singh GK, Siahpush M, Kogan MD: Rising social inequalities in US childhood obesity, 2003–2007. Ann Epidemiol 2010, 20(1):40-52.
• [18]Morgen CS, Mortensen LH, Rasmussen M, Andersen AM, Sorensen TI, Due P: Parental socioeconomic position and development of overweight in adolescence: longitudinal study of Danish adolescents. BMC Public Health 2010, 10:520. BioMed Central Full Text
• [19]Richter M, Leppin A: Trends in socio-economic differences in tobacco smoking among German schoolchildren, 1994–2002. Eur J Public Health 2007, 17(6):565-571.
• [20]Victora CG, Wagstaff A, Schellenberg JA, Gwatkin D, Claeson M, Habicht J: Applying an equity lens to child health and mortality: more of the same is not enough. The Lancet 2003, 362(9379):233-240.
• [21]Chen E, Matthews KA, Boyce WT: Socio-economic differences in children's health: how and why do these relationships change with age? Psychological Bulletin 2002, 2(128):295-329.
• [22]Torsheim T, Currie C, Boyce W, Samdal O: Country material distribution and adolescents' perceived health: Multilevel study of adolescents in twenty-seven countries. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2006, 60(2):156-161.
• [23]Holstein BE, Currie CE, Boyce W, Damsgaard MT, Gobina I, Kökönyei G, Hetland J, de Looze M, Richter M, Due P, et al.: Socio-economic inequality in multiple health complaints among adolescents: international comparative study in 37 countries. International Journal of Public Health 2009, 54(S2):S260-S270.
• [24]Vereecken C, Inchley J, Subramanian SV, Hublet A, Maes L: The relative influence of individual and contextual socio-economic status on consumption of fruit and soft drinks among adolescents in Europe. European Journal of Public Health 2005, 15(3):224-232.
• [25]Due P, Damsgaard MT, Rasmussen M, Holstein BE, Wardle J, Merlo J, Currie C, Ahluwalia N, Sørensen TI, Lynch J, et al.: Socioeconomic position, macroeconomic environment and overweight among adolescents in 35 countries. International Journal of Obesity 2009, 33(10):1084-1093.
• [26]Due P, Merlo J, Harel-Fisch Y, Trab Damsgaard M, Holstein B, Hetland J, Currie C, Nic Gabhainn S: Gaspar de Matos M, Lynch J: Socioeconomic inequality in exposure to bullying during adolescence: a comparative, cross-sectional, multilevel study in 35 countries. American Journal of Public Health 2009, 99(5):907-914.
• [27]Richter M, Vereecken CA, Boyce W, Maes L, Gabhainn SN, Currie CE: Parental occupation, family affluence and adolescent behaviour in 28 countries. International Journal of Public Health 2009, 54(4):203-212.
• [28]Currie C, Molcho M, Boyce W, Holstein B, Torsheim T, Richter M: Researching health inequalities in adolescents: the development of the Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children (HBSC) family affluence scale. Social Science and Medicine 2008, 66(6):1429-1436.
• [29]West P, Sweeting H: Evidence on equalisation in health in youth from the West of Scotland. Social Science & Medicine 2004, 59:13-27.
• [30]Case A, Lubotsky D, Paxson C: Economic status and health in childhood: the origins of the gradient. American Economic Review 2002, 92:1308-1334.
• [31]Currie J, Stabile M: Socioeconomic status and child health: why is the relationship stronger for older children? American Economic Review 2003, 93:1813-1823.
• [32]Chen E, Martin AD, Matthews KA: Socio-economic status and health: do gradients differ within childhood and adolescence? Social Science & Medicine 2006, 62:2161-2170.
• [33]Robert S: Socioeconomic position and health: the independent contribution of community socioeconomic context. Annual Review of Sociology 1999, 25:489-516.
• [34]Kawachi I, Berkman LF: Neighborhoods and health. New York: Oxford Universerity Press, Kawachi I, Berkman LF; 2003.
• [35]Bernard P, Charafeddine R, Frohlich KL, Daniel M, Kestens Y, Potvin L: Health inequalities and place: A theoretical conception of neighbourhood. Social Science & Medicine 2007, 65(9):1839-1852.
• [36]Sampson RJ: The neighborhood context of well-being. Perspectives in biology and medicine 2003, 46(3):S53-S64.
• [37]Sampson RJ, Morenoff JD, Gannon-Rowley T: Assessing "neighborhood effects": social processes and new directions in research. Annual Review Sociology 2002, 28:443-478.
• [38]Curtis S, Jones IR: Is there a place for geography in the analysis of health inequality? Sociology of health & illness 1998, 20(5):645-672.
• [39]Poulton R, Caspi A, Milne BJ, Thomson WM, Taylor A, Sears MR, Moffitt TE: Association between children’s experience of socioeconomic disadvantage and adult health: a life-course study. Lancet 2002, 360:1640-1645.
• [40]Reading R: Poverty and the health of children and adolescents. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1997, 76(5):463-167.
• [41]Com: Communtication from the commision to the European parliament, the council, the european economic and social committee and the committee of the regions. Solidariy in health: reducing health inequalities in the EU. Brussels: Commission of the European Communities; 2009.
• [42]Leventhal T, Brooks-Gunn J: Changing neighborhoods: Understanding how children may be affected in the coming century. Advances in Life Course Research 2001, 6:263-301.
• [43]Jencks C, Mayer E, In: Inner-city poverty in the United States: The social consequences of growing up in a poor neighborhood. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press: Edited by Lynn LEJ, McGeary MGH; 1990:111-186.
• [44]Szreter S, Woolcock M: Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health. International Journal of Epidemioliogy 2004, 33(4):650-667.
• [45]Franzini L, Taylor W, Elliott MN, Cuccaro P, Tortolero SR, Janice Gilliland M, Grunbaum J, Schuster MA: Neighborhood characteristics favorable to outdoor physical activity: disparities by socioeconomic and racial/ethnic composition. Health & Place 2010, 16(2):267-274.
• [46]Kawachi I, Subramanian SV, Almeida-Filho N: A glossary for health inequalities. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 2002, 56:647-652.
• [47]Leventhal T, Brooks-Gunn J: The neighborhoods they live in: the effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin 2000, 126(2):309-337.
• [48]Kim D, Kawachi I: U.S. state-level social capital and health-related quality of life: multilevel evidence of main, mediating, and modifying effects. Ann Epidemiol 2007, 17(4):258-269.
• [49]Kawachi I, Kennedy BP: Income inequality and health: pathways and mechanisms. Health Serv Res 1999, 34(1 Pt 2):215-227.
• [50]Kim D, Baum CF, Ganz ML, Subramanian SV, Kawachi I: The contextual effects of social capital on health: a cross-national instrumental variable analysis. Social Science & Medicine 2011, 73(12):1689-1697.
• [51]Gordon RA, Savage C, Lahey BB, Goodman SH, Jensen PS, Rubio-Stipec M, Hoven CW: Family and neighborhood income: additive and mubliplicative associations with youths' wellbeing. Social Science Research 2003, 32(2):191-219.
• [52]Morrens B: Sociaal kapitaal en gezondheid: een overzicht van de recente onderzoeksliteratuur. Tijdschrift voor Sociologie 2008, 29(2–3):138-157.
• [53]Portes A: Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology 1998, 24:1-24.
• [54]Szreter S, Woolcock A: Health by association? Social capital, social theory and the political economy of public health. International Journal of Epidemiology 2004, 33(4):650-667.
• [55]Bourdieu P, In: Handbook of theory and research: The forms of capital. New York: Greenwood Press: Edited by Richardson JG; 1986.
• [56]Song L: Your body knows who you know: social capital and health inequality. Durham: Duke University: Doctoral thesis; 2009.
• [57]Putnam R: Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital. Journal of Democracy 1995, 6(1):65-78.
• [58]Carpiano RM: Toward a neighborhood resource-based theory of social capital for health: Can Bourdieu and sociology help? Social Science & Medicine 2006, 62(1):165-175.
• [59]Derose KP, Varda DM: Social capital and health care access: a systematic review. Medical Care Research and Review 2009, 66(3):272-306.
• [60]Macinko J, Starfield B: The utility of social capital in research on health determinants. The Milbank Quarterly 2001, 79(3):387-427.
• [61]Morgan A, Swann C, In: Social capital for health: issues of definition, measurement and links to health: Where next for social capital research?. London: NHS Health Development Agency; 2004.
• [62]Stone W: Measuring Social Capital. Melbourne: Australian Institute of Family Studies; 2001.
• [63]Portes A: The Two Meanings of Social Capital. Sociological Forum 2000, 15(1):1-12.
• [64]Poortinga W: Social capital: An individual or collective resource for health? Social Science & Medicine 2006, 62(2):292-302.
• [65]Kawachi I, Berkman LF: Introduction. In: Neighborhoods and health. New York: Oxford University Press: Edited by Kawachi I, Berkman LF; 2003.
• [66]Ferlander S: The internet, social capital and local community. University of Stirling: Stirling Publisher: University of Stirling; 2003.
• [67]Wellman B, Berkowitz SD: Social structures: a network approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1988.
• [68]Harpham T: The measurement of community social capital through surveys. In Social capital and health. Edited by Kawachi I, Subramanian SV, Kim D. New York: Springer; 2008.
• [69]Kawachi I: Commentary: Social capital and health - making the connections one step at the time. International Journal of Epidemiology 2006, 35(4):989-993.
• [70]Hawe P, Schiell A: Social capital and health promotion: A review. Social Science & Medicine 2000, 51(6):871-885.
• [71]Kawachi I, Kennedy BP, Lochner K, Prothow-Stith D: Social capital, social inequality, and mortality. American Journal of Public Health 1997, 87(9):1491-1498.
• [72]Kawachi I, Kennedy BP, Glass R: Social capital and self-rated health: A contextual analysis. American Journal of Public Health 1999, 89(8):1187-1193.
• [73]Veenstra G: Social capital, SES and health: an individual-level analysis. Social science & medicine 2000, 50(5):619-629.
• [74]Leonard M: Children, Childhood and Social Capital: Exploring the Links. Sociology 2005, 39(4):605-622.
• [75]Morrow V: Conceptualising social capital in relation to the well-being of children and young people: a critical review. The Sociological Review 1999, 47(4):744-765.
• [76]Morrow V, In: Social capital for health: insights from qualitative research: Children’s experiences of ‘community’: implication of social capital discources. London: NHS Health Development Agency; 2002.
• [77]Borges CM, Campos AC, Vargas AD, Ferreira EF, Kawachi I: Social capital and self-rated health among adolescents in Brazil: an exploratory study. BMC research notes 2010, 3:338. BioMed Central Full Text
• [78]Boyce WF, Davies D, Gallupe O, Shelley D: Adolescent risk taking, neighborhood social capital, and health. J Adolesc Health 2008, 43(3):246-252.
• [79]Drukker M, Buka SL, Kaplan C, McKenzie K, Van Os J: Social capital and young adolescents' perceived health in different sociocultural settings. Soc Sci Med 2005, 61(1):185-198.
• [80]Morgan A, Haglund BJ: Social capital does matter for adolescent health: evidence from the English HBSC study. Health Promot Int 2009, 24(4):363-372.
• [81]Elgar FJ, Trites SJ, Boyce W: Social capital reduces socio-economic differences in child health: evidence from the Canadian Health Behaviour in School-Aged Children study. Can J Public Health 2010, 101(Suppl 3):S23-27.
• [82]Eriksson U, Hochwalder J, Carlsund A, Sellstrom E: Health outcomes among Swedish children: the role of social capital in the family, school, and neighbourhood. Oslo, Norway: 1992: Acta paediatrica; 2011.
• [83]Crosby RA, Holtgrave DR, DiClemente RJ, Wingood GM, Gayle JA: Social capital as a predictor of adolescents' sexual risk behavior: a state-level exploratory study. AIDS Behav 2003, 7(3):245-252.
• [84]Singh GK, Kogan MD, Siahpush M, van Dyck PC: Independent and joint effects of socioeconomic, behavioral, and neighborhood characteristics on physical inactivity and activity levels among US children and adolescents. J Community Health 2008, 33(4):206-216.
• [85]Winstanley EL, Steinwachs DM, Ensminger ME, Latkin CA, Stitzer ML, Olsen Y: The association of self-reported neighborhood disorganization and social capital with adolescent alcohol and drug use, dependence, and access to treatment. Drug and alcohol dependence 2008, 92(1–3):173-182.
• [86]Field J: Social Capital. London: Routledge; 2003.
• [87]Ferlander S: The importance of different forms of social capital for health. Acta Sociologica 2007, 50(2):115-128.
• [88]Moore S, Daniel M, Gauvin L, Dube L: Not all social capital is good capital. Health Place 2009, 15(4):1071-1077.
• [89]van Lenthe FJ, De Bourdeaudhuij I, Klepp K, Lien N, Moore L, Faggiano F, Kunst AE, Mackenbach JP: Preventing socioeconomic inequalities in health behaviour in adolescents in Europe: Background, design, and methods of project TEENAGE. BMC Public Health 2009, 2009(9):125.
• [90]Pilkington P: Social capital and health: measuring and understanding social capital at a local level could help to tackle health inequalities more effectively. Journal of Public Health Medicine 2002, 24(3):156-159.
• [91]Stokols D: Translating social ecological theory into guidelines for community health promotion. American Journal of Health Promotion 1996, 10:282-297.
• [92]Subramanian SV, Kawachi I: Whose health is affected by income inequality? A multilevel interaction analysis of contemporaneous and lagged effects of state income inequality on individual self-rated health in the United States. Health & Place 2006, 12(2):141-156.
• [93]Gold R, Kennedy B, Connell F, Kawachi I: Teen births, income inequality, and social capital: developing an understanding of the causal pathway. Health Place 2002, 8(2):77-83.
• [94]Ichida Y, Kondo K, Hirai H, Hanibuchi T, Yoshikawa G, Murata C: Social capital, income inequality and self-rated health in Chita peninsula, Japan: a multilevel analysis of older people in 25 communities. Soc Sci Med 2009, 69(4):489-499.
• [95]Kawachi I, Kennedy BP: Income inequality and health: pathways and mechanisms. Health Services Research 1999, 34(1 Pt 2):215-227.
• [96]Elgar FJ: Income inequality, trust, and population health in 33 countries. American Journal of Public Health 2010, 100(11):2311-2315.
• [97]Wilkinson RG: Unhealthy Societies. London: Routledge: the Afflications of Inequality; 1996.
• [98]Dahl E, Malmberg-Heimonen I: Social inequality and health: the role of social capital. Sociol Health Illn 2010, 32(7):1102-1119.
• [99]Song L, Lin N: Social capital and health inequality: evidence from Taiwan. Journal of health and social behavior 2009, 50(2):149-163.
• [100]Morgan A, Swann C: Introduction: issues of definition, measurement and links to health. In Social capital for health: issues of definition, measurement and links to health. Edited by Morgan A, Swann C. London: NHS Health Development Agency; 2004.
• [101]Blaxter M: Questions and their meanings in social capital surveys. In Social capital for health: issues of definition, measurement and links to health. Edited by Morgan A, Swann C. London: NHS Health Development Agency; 2004.
• [102]Ferguson KM: Social capital and children's wellbeing: a critical sythesis of the international social capital literature. International Journal of Social Welfare 2006, 15(1):2-18.
• [103]Maggi S, Irwin LG, Siddigi A, Poureslami I, Hertzman E, Hertzman C: Knowledge network for early childhood development. Analytic & strategic review paper: international perspectives on early childhood development. WHO; 2005.
• [104]Sobel ME: Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation model. In Sociological Methodology. Edited by Leinhardt S. Washington DC: American Sociological Association; 1982:290-312.
• [105]Baron RM, Kenny DA: The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic and Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1986, 51(6):1173-1182.
• [106]MacKinnon DP, Fairchild AJ, Fritz MS: Mediation analysis. Annual Review of Psychology 2007, 58:593-614.
• [107]Zhao X, Lynch JGJ, Chen Q: Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and Truths about Mediation Analysis. Journal of Consumer Research 2010, 37:197-206.
• [108]Mirza M, Fitzpatrick-Lewis D, Thomas H, In. Hamilton, ON: Is there a relationship between food insecurity and overweight/obesity?. Ontario Public Health Research, Education and Development: Effective Public Health Practice Project; 2007.
• [109]Karriker-Jaffe KJ, Foshee VA, Ennett ST, Suchindran C: Sex differences in the effects of neighborhood socioeconomic disadvantage and social organization on rural adolescents' aggression trajectories. Am J Community Psychol 2009, 43(3–4):189-203.
• [110]Xue Y, Leventhal T, Brooks-Gunn J, Earls FJ: Neighborhood residence and mental health problems of 5- to 11-year-olds. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62(5):554-563.
• [111]Kohen DE, Leventhal T, Dahinten VS, McIntosh CN: Neighborhood disadvantage: pathways of effects for young children. Child Dev 2008, 79(1):156-169.
• [112]Caughy MO, Nettles SM, O'Campo PJ: The effect of residential neighborhood on child behavior problems in first grade. American Journal of Community Psychology 2008, 42:39-50.
• [113]Kohen DE, Brooks-Gunn J, Leventhal T, Hertzman C: Neighborhood income and physical and social disorder in Canada: associations with young children's competencies. Child Development 2002, 73(6):1844-1860.
• [114]Caughy MO, O'Campo PJ: Neighborhood poverty, social capital and the cognitive development of African American preschoolers. American Journal of Community Psychology 2006, 37(1/2):141-154.
• [115]Drukker M, Kaplan C, Schneiders J, Feron FJ, van Os J: The wider social environment and changes in self-reported quality of life in the transition from late childhood to early adolescence: a cohort study. BMC Public Health 2006, 6:133. BioMed Central Full Text
• [116]Odgers CL, Moffitt TE, Tach LM, Sampson RJ, Taylor A, Matthews CL, Caspi A: The Protective Effects of Neighborhood Collective Efficacy on British Children Growing Up in Deprivation: A Developmental Analysis. Dev Psychol 2009, 45(4):942-957.
• [117]Sampson RJ, Raudenbush SW, Earls F: Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 1997, 277(5328):918-924.
• [118]Kohen DE, Brooks-Gunn J, Leventhal T, Hertzman C: Neighborhood income and physical and social disorder in Canada: associations with young children's competencies. Child Dev 2002, 73(6):1844-1860.
• [119]Chen E, Martin AD, Matthews KA: Trajectories of socioeconomic status across children's lifetime predict health. Pediatrics 2007, 120(2):e297-e303.
• [120]Dallago L, Perkins DD, Santinello M, Boyce W, Molcho M, Morgan A: Adolescent place attachment, social capital, and perceived safety: a comparison of 13 countries. American Journal of Community Psychology 2009, 44(1–2):148-160.
• [121]Gershoff ET, Aber JL, In: Child Psychology: A Handbook of Contemporary Issues (2 nd ed) edn: Neighborhoods and schools: Contexts and consequences for the mental health and risk behaviors of children and youth. New York: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis: Edited by Balter L, Tamis-LeMonda CS; 2006:611-645.
• [122]Drukker M, Kaplan C, Feron F, van Os J: Children’s health-related quality of life, neighborhood socio-economic deprivation and social capital. A contextual analysis. Social Science & Medicine 2003, 57(5):825-841.
• [123]Mohnen SM, Völker B, Flap H, Subramanian SV, Groenewegen PP: You have to be there to enjoy it?. European Journal of Public Health: Neighbourhood social capital and health; 2012.
• [124]Wilkinson RG: Health inequalities: relative or absolute material standards? British Medical Journal 1997, 31:591-595.
• [125]Kawachi I, Kennedy BP, Wilkinson R: Crime: social disorganization and relative deprivation. Social Science & Medicine 1999, 48:719-731.
• [126]Hox J: Multilevel analysis: techniques and applications. New York: Psychology Press. Taylor and Francis Group; 2002.
• [127]Lenzi M, Vieno A, Perkins DD, Pastore M, Santinello M, Mazzardis S: Perceived neighborhood social resources as determinants of prosocial behavior in early adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology 2012, 50(1–2):37-49.
• [128]Moore KA, Halle TG: Preventing problems vs. promoting the positive: What do we want for our children? Advances in Life Course Research 2001, 6(2011):141-170.
• [129]Shaw C, McKay H: Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press; 1942.
• [130]Sampson RJ, In: Crime: The community. San Francisco: Institute for Contempory Studies: Edited by Wilson JQ, Petersilia J; 1995:193-216.
• [131]Hardyns W: Social cohesion and crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy, victimisation and fear of crime. Ghent: University of Ghent; 2010.
• [132]Stafford M, Bartley M, Marmot M, Boreham R, Thomas R, Wilkinson R: Neighbourhood social cohesion and health: investigating associations and possible mechanisms. Edited by Morgan A, Swann C. London: Health Development Agency; 2004.