Australian children’s consumption of caffeinated, formulated beverages: a cross-sectional analysis

BMC Public Health

Lynn J Riddell¹  Carley A Grimes¹  Kelsey Beckford¹ 

[1] Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, 221 Burwood Highway, Burwood, Melbourne 3125, Victoria, Australia

关键词: Australia;    Adolescent;    Child;    Soft drink;    Dietary;    Beverages;    Dietary;    Caffeine;   

Others  :  1121565
DOI  :  10.1186/s12889-015-1443-9

 received in 2014-05-07, accepted in 2015-01-19,  发布年份 2015

【 摘 要 】

Background

Caffeine is a common additive in formulated beverages, including sugar-sweetened beverages. Currently there are no data on the consumption of caffeinated formulated beverages in Australian children and adolescents. This study aimed to determine total intake and consumption patterns of CFBs in a nationally representative sample of Australian children aged 2–16 years and to determine contribution of CFBs to total caffeine intake. Consumption by day type, mealtime and location was also examined.

Methods

Dietary data from one 24-hour recall collected in the 2007 Australian National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey were analysed. CFBs were defined as beverages to which caffeine has been added as an additive, including cola-type beverages and energy drinks. Socioeconomic status was based on the highest level of education attained by the participant’s primary caregiver. Time of day of consumption was classified based on traditional mealtimes and type of day of consumption as either a school or non-school day. Location of consumption was defined by the participant during the survey.

Results

On the day of the survey 15% (n = 642) of participants consumed CFBs. Older children and those of low socioeconomic background were more likely to consume CFBs (both P < 0.001). Amongst the 642 consumers mean (95% CI) intakes were 151 (115–187)g/day, 287 (252–321)g/day, 442 (400–484)g/day, and 555 (507–602)g/day for 2–3, 4–8, 9–13 and 14–16 year olds respectively. Consumers of CFBs had higher intakes of caffeine (mean (95% CI) 61 (55–67)mg vs. 11 (10–12)mg) and energy (mean (95% CI) 9,612 (9,247-9978)kJ vs. 8,186 (8,040-8,335)kJ) than non-consumers (both P < 0.001). CFBs contributed 69% of total daily caffeine intake. CFB intake was higher on non-school days compared with school days (P < 0.005) and consumption occurred predominantly at the place of residence (56%), within the “dinner” time bracket (17:00–20:30, 44%).

Conclusions

The consumption of CFBs by all age groups within Australian children is of concern. Modifications to the permissibility of caffeine as a food additive may be an appropriate strategy to reduce the intake of caffeine in this age group. Additional areas for intervention include targeting parental influences over mealtime beverage choices.

【 授权许可】

   
2015 Beckford et al.; licensee BioMed Central.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

Figure 2.

Figure 3.

Figure 4.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Heckman MA, Weil J, de Mejia EG: Caffeine (1, 3, 7-trimethylxanthine) in foods: a comprehensive review on consumption, functionality, safety, and regulatory matters. J Food Sci 2010, 75:R77-87.
• [2]Consumer Information: Caffeine. [http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/consumer/generalissues/Pages/Caffeine.aspx]
• [3]High caffeine energy drinks and other foods containing caffeine. [https://www.food.gov.uk/science/additives/energydrinks]
• [4]List of Permitted Food Additives with Other Generally Accepted Uses. [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/addit/list/8-other-autre-eng.php]
• [5]Food Additive Status List. [http://www.fda.gov/food/ingredientspackaginglabeling/foodadditivesingredients/ucm091048.htm#ftnC]
• [6]Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code - Standard 1.3.1 - Food Additives. [http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Series/F2008B00614]
• [7]Australia New Zealand Food Standards Code - Standard 2.6.4 - Formulated Caffeinated Beverages. [http://www.comlaw.gov.au/Series/F2008B00793]
• [8]Food Regulation Standing Committee Caffeine Working Group: Food Regulation Policy Options Paper: The Regulation of Caffeine in Foods. Food Regulation Standing Committee Caffeine Working Group, Woden, ACT; 2013.
• [9]It’s Your Health - Caffeine. [http://www.cg.cfpsa.ca/cg-pc/Comox/SiteCollectionDocuments/EN/Health%20Promotion/WW_Additional_Handouts/70%20-%20Caffeine_EN.pdf]
• [10]FDA to Investigate Caffeine. [http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm350570.htm]
• [11]Heatherley SV, Hayward RC, Seers HE, Rogers PJ: Cognitive and psychomotor performance, mood, and pressor effects of caffeine after 4, 6 and 8 h caffeine abstinence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005, 178:461-70.
• [12]Griffiths RR, Woodson PP: Caffeine physical dependence: a review of human and laboratory animal studies. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1988, 94:437-51.
• [13]Department of Health and Ageing, National Health and Medical Research Council: Nutrient Reference values for Australia and New Zealand. Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra, ACT; 2006.
• [14]Fitt E, Pell D, Cole D: Assessing caffeine intake in the United Kingdom diet. Food Chem 2013, 140:421-6.
• [15]Frary CD, Johnson RK, Wang MQ: Food sources and intakes of caffeine in the diets of persons in the United States. J Am Diet Assoc 2005, 105:110-3.
• [16]Knight CA, Knight I, Mitchell DC: Beverage caffeine intakes in young children in Canada and the US. Can J Diet Pract Res 2006, 67:96-9.
• [17]Riddell LJ, Sayompark D, Oliver P, Keast RSJ: Caffeine as an Ingredient in Sugar Sweetened Beverages. In Caffeine: Chemistry, Analysis, Function and Effects. Edited by Preedy VR. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge; 2012:22-38.
• [18]Armfield JM, Spencer AJ, Roberts-Thomson KF, Plastow K: Water fluoridation and the association of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and dental caries in Australian children. Am J Public Health 2013, 103:494-500.
• [19]Whiting SJ, Vatanparast H, Baxter-Jones A, Faulkner RA, Mirwald R, Bailey DA: Factors that affect bone mineral accrual in the adolescent growth spurt. J Nutr 2004, 134:696S-700.
• [20]de Ruyter JC, Olthof MR, Seidell JC, Katan MB: A trial of sugar-free or sugar-sweetened beverages and body weight in children. N Engl J Med 2012, 367:1397-406.
• [21]Ebbeling CB, Feldman HA, Chomitz VR, Antonelli TA, Gortmaker SL, Osganian SK, et al.: A randomized trial of sugar-sweetened beverages and adolescent body weight. N Engl J Med 2012, 367:1407-16.
• [22]Ebbeling CB, Feldman HA, Osganian SK, Chomitz VR, Ellenbogen SJ, Ludwig DS: Effects of decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption on body weight in adolescents: a randomized, controlled pilot study. Pediatrics 2006, 117:673-80.
• [23]James J, Thomas P, Cavan D, Kerr D: Preventing childhood obesity by reducing consumption of carbonated drinks: cluster randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2004, 328:1237.
• [24]PepsiCo International The physical or technical effect of caffeine in cola beverages. Vol III, Appendix XII of comments of the National Soft Drink Association submitted to the department of Health and Human Services Food and Drug Administration in response to the proposal to delete caffeine in cola-type beverages from the list of generally regarded as safe and to issue an interim food additive regulation governing its future use no. FDA Docket No. 80N-0418. 1981
• [25]Keast RSJ, Riddell LJ: Caffeine as a flavor additive in soft-drinks. Appetite 2007, 49:255-9.
• [26]Keast RSJ, Swinburn B, Sayompark D, Whitelock S, Riddell LJ. Caffeine increases sugar sweetened beverage consumption in a free living population. A randomised control trial. Br J Nutr. 2015; doi:10.1017/S000711451400378X.
• [27]Keast RSJ, Sayompark D, Sacks G, Swinburn BA, Riddell LJ: The influence of caffeine on energy content of sugar-sweetened beverages: ‘the caffeine-calorie effect’. Eur J Clin Nutr 2011, 65:1338-44.
• [28]Department of Health and AgeingDepartment of Agriculture Fisheries and ForestryAustralian Food and Grocery Council: 2007 Australian National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey User Guide. Commonwealth Government, Canberra, Australia; 2010.
• [29]Grimes CA, Campbell KJ, Riddell LJ, Nowson CA: Sources of sodium in Australian children’s diets and the effect of the application of sodium targets to food products to reduce sodium intake. Br J Nutr 2011, 105:468-77.
• [30]Cole TJ, Bellizzi MC, Flegal KM, Dietz WH: Establishing a standard definition for child overweight and obesity worldwide: international survey. BMJ 2000, 320:1240-3.
• [31]Cole TJ, Flegal KM, Nicholls D, Jackson AA: Body mass index cut offs to define thinness in children and adolescents: international survey. BMJ 2007, 335:194.
• [32]NZ Food NZ Children: Key results of the 2002 National Children’s Nutrition Survey. [http://www.health.govt.nz/publication/nz-food-nz-children]
• [33]Food Standards Australia New Zealand. Australian Food, Supplement & Nutrient Database 2007. Food Standards Australia and New Zealand Website. 2008. [http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/science/monitoringnutrients/ausnut/Pages/ausnut2007.aspx]
• [34]Food Standards Australia New Zealand: AUSNUT 2007—Australian Food, Supplement and Nutrient Database for Estimation of Population Nutrient Intakes: Explanatory Notes. Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Canberra; 2008.
• [35]Grimes CA, Riddell LJ, Campbell KJ, Nowson CA: Dietary salt intake, sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, and obesity risk. Pediatrics 2013, 131:14-21.
• [36]Hafekost K, Mitrou F, Lawrence D, Zubrick SR: Sugar sweetened beverage consumption by Australian children: implications for public health strategy. BMC Public Health 2011, 11:950. BioMed Central Full Text
• [37]Mitchell GL, Farrow C, Haycraft E, Meyer C: Parental influences on children’s eating behaviour and characteristics of successful parent-focussed interventions. Appetite 2013, 60:85-94.
• [38]Spurrier N, Magarey A, Golley R, Curnow F, Sawyer M: Relationships between the home environment and physical activity and dietary patterns of preschool children: a cross-sectional study. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2008, 5:31. BioMed Central Full Text
• [39]Gibson R: Principles of Nutritional Assessment. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press, New York; 2005.