A review of the reporting and handling of missing data in cohort studies with repeated assessment of exposure measures

BMC Medical Research Methodology

Julie A Simpson¹  Dallas R English¹  John B Carlin²  Laura Baglietto¹  Amalia Karahalios¹ 

[1] Centre for Molecular, Environmental, Genetic, and Analytic Epidemiology, School of Population Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia;Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics Unit, Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Parkville, VIC, Australia

关键词: Reporting;    Missing data methods;    Repeated exposure measurement;    Missing exposure data;    Longitudinal cohort studies;   

Others  :  1136561
DOI  :  10.1186/1471-2288-12-96

 received in 2011-12-12, accepted in 2012-07-11,  发布年份 2012

【 摘 要 】

Background

Retaining participants in cohort studies with multiple follow-up waves is difficult. Commonly, researchers are faced with the problem of missing data, which may introduce biased results as well as a loss of statistical power and precision. The STROBE guidelines von Elm et al. (Lancet, 370:1453-1457, 2007); Vandenbroucke et al. (PLoS Med, 4:e297, 2007) and the guidelines proposed by Sterne et al. (BMJ, 338:b2393, 2009) recommend that cohort studies report on the amount of missing data, the reasons for non-participation and non-response, and the method used to handle missing data in the analyses. We have conducted a review of publications from cohort studies in order to document the reporting of missing data for exposure measures and to describe the statistical methods used to account for the missing data.

Methods

A systematic search of English language papers published from January 2000 to December 2009 was carried out in PubMed. Prospective cohort studies with a sample size greater than 1,000 that analysed data using repeated measures of exposure were included.

Results

Among the 82 papers meeting the inclusion criteria, only 35 (43%) reported the amount of missing data according to the suggested guidelines. Sixty-eight papers (83%) described how they dealt with missing data in the analysis. Most of the papers excluded participants with missing data and performed a complete-case analysis (n = 54, 66%). Other papers used more sophisticated methods including multiple imputation (n = 5) or fully Bayesian modeling (n = 1). Methods known to produce biased results were also used, for example, Last Observation Carried Forward (n = 7), the missing indicator method (n = 1), and mean value substitution (n = 3). For the remaining 14 papers, the method used to handle missing data in the analysis was not stated.

Conclusions

This review highlights the inconsistent reporting of missing data in cohort studies and the continuing use of inappropriate methods to handle missing data in the analysis. Epidemiological journals should invoke the STROBE guidelines as a framework for authors so that the amount of missing data and how this was accounted for in the analysis is transparent in the reporting of cohort studies.

【 授权许可】

   
2012 Karahalios et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.

【 图 表 】

Figure 1.

【 参考文献 】

• [1]Cupples LA, D’Agostino RB, Anderson K, Kannel WB: Comparison of baseline and repeated measure covariate techniques in the Framingham Heart Study. Stat Med 1988, 7:205-222.
• [2]Shortreed SM, Forbes AB: Missing data in the exposure of interest and marginal structural models: a simulation study based on the Framingham Heart Study. Stat Med 2010, 29:431-443.
• [3]Jelicic H, Phelps E, Lerner RM: Use of missing data methods in longitudinal studies: the persistence of bad practices in developmental psychology. Dev Psychol 2009, 45:1195-1199.
• [4]Kurland BF, Johnson LL, Egleston BL, Diehr PH: Longitudinal data with follow-up truncated by death: match the analysis method to research aims. Stat Sci 2009, 24:211.
• [5]White IR, Carlin JB: Bias and efficiency of multiple imputation compared with complete-case analysis for missing covariate values. Stat Med 2010.
• [6]Knol MJ, Janssen KJ, Donders AR, Egberts AC, Heerdink ER, Grobbee DE, Moons KG, Geerlings MI: Unpredictable bias when using the missing indicator method or complete case analysis for missing confounder values: an empirical example. J Clin Epidemiol 2010, 63:728-736.
• [7]Molenberghs G, Thijs H, Jansen I, Beunckens C, Kenward MG, Mallinckrodt C, Carroll RJ: Analyzing incomplete longitudinal clinical trial data. Biostatistics 2004, 5:445-464.
• [8]Schafer JL, Graham JW: Missing data: our view of the state of the art. Psychol Methods 2002, 7:147-177.
• [9]Carpenter J, Kenward MG: A critique of common approaches to missing data. National Institute for Health Research, Birmingham, AL; 2007.
• [10]von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, Gotzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP: The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. Lancet 2007, 370:1453-1457.
• [11]Vandenbroucke JP, von Elm E, Altman DG, Gotzsche PC, Mulrow CD, Pocock SJ, Poole C, Schlesselman JJ, Egger M: Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE): explanation and elaboration. PLoS Med 2007, 4:e297.
• [12]Sterne JAC, White IR, Carlin JB, Spratt M, Royston P, Kenward MG, Wood AM, Carpenter JR: Multiple imputation for missing data in epidemiological and clinical research: potential and pitfalls. BMJ 2009, 338:b2393.
• [13]Little RJA, Rubin DB: Statistical analysis with missing data. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, New Jersey; 2002.
• [14]Rubin DB: Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. John Wiley & Sons, New York; 1987.
• [15]Buhi ER, Goodson P, Neilands TB: Out of sight, not out of mind: strategies for handling missing data. Am J Heal Behav 2008, 32:83-92.
• [16]Greenland S, Finkle WD: A critical look at methods for handling missing covariates in epidemiologic regression analyses. Am J Epidemiol 1995, 142:1255-1264.
• [17]Azur MJ, Stuart EA, Frangakis C, Leaf PJ: Multiple imputation by chained equations: what is it and how does it work? Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 2011, 20:40-49.
• [18]White IR, Royston P, Wood AM: Multiple imputation using chained equations: issues and guidance for practice. Stat Med 2011, 30:377-399.
• [19]Lee KJ, Carlin JB: Multiple imputation for missing data: fully conditional specification versus multivariate normal imputation. Am J Epidemiol 2010, 171:624-632.
• [20]StataCorp: Stata Statistical Software: Release 11. StataCorp LP, College Station, TX; 2009.
• [21]SAS Insitute Inc: SAS OnlineDoc, Version 8. SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC; 2000.
• [22]Carpenter JR, Kenward MG, Vansteelandt S: A comparison of multiple imputation and doubly robust estimation for analyses with missing data. J R Stat Soc: Series A (Stat Soc) 2006, 169:571-584.
• [23]Graham JW: Missing data analysis: making it work in the real world. Annu Rev Psychol 2009, 60:549-576.
• [24]Enders CK: A primer on maximum likelihood algorithms available for use with missing data. Struct Equ Model 2001, 8:128-141.
• [25]Horton NJ, Kleinman KP: Much ado about nothing: a comparison of missing data methods and software to fit incomplete data regression models. Am Stat 2007, 61:79-90.
• [26]Baraldi AN, Enders CK: An introduction to modern missing data analyses. J Sch Psychol 2010, 48:5-37.
• [27]Schafer J, Yucel R: PAN: Multiple imputation for multivariate panel data (Software). 1999, 86:949-955.
• [28]Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R: Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 2002, 360:1903-1913.
• [29]Bond GE, Burr RL, McCurry SM, Rice MM, Borenstein AR, Larson EB: Alcohol and cognitive performance: a longitudinal study of older Japanese Americans. The Kame Project. Int Psychogeriatr 2005, 17:653-668.
• [30]Kivimaki M, Lawlor DA, Singh-Manoux A, Batty GD, Ferrie JE, Shipley MJ, Nabi H, Sabia S, Marmot MG, Jokela M: Common mental disorder and obesity: insight from four repeat measures over 19 years: prospective Whitehall II cohort study. BMJ 2009, 339:b3765.
• [31]McCormack VA, Dos Santos Silva I, De Stavola BL, Perry N, Vinnicombe S, Swerdlow AJ, Hardy R, Kuh D: Life-course body size and perimenopausal mammographic parenchymal patterns in the MRC 1946 British birth cohort. Br J Cancer 2003, 89:852-859.
• [32]Sugihara Y, Sugisawa H, Shibata H, Harada K: Productive roles, gender, and depressive symptoms: evidence from a national longitudinal study of late-middle-aged Japanese. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2008, 63:P227-P234.
• [33]Wiles NJ, Haase AM, Gallacher J, Lawlor DA, Lewis G: Physical activity and common mental disorder: results from the Caerphilly study. Am J Epidemiol 2007, 165:946-954.
• [34]Fuhrer R, Dufouil C, Dartigues JF: Exploring sex differences in the relationship between depressive symptoms and dementia incidence: prospective results from the PAQUID Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2003, 51:1055-1063.
• [35]Sogaard AJ, Meyer HE, Tonstad S, Haheim LL, Holme I: Weight cycling and risk of forearm fractures: a 28-year follow-up of men in the Oslo Study. Am J Epidemiol 2008, 167:1005-1013.
• [36]Burton A, Altman DG: Missing covariate data within cancer prognostic studies: a review of current reporting and proposed guidelines. Br J Cancer 2004, 91:4-8.
• [37]Mackinnon A: The use and reporting of multiple imputation in medical research - a review. J Intern Med 2010, 268:586-593.
• [38]Agrawal A, Grant JD, Waldron M, Duncan AE, Scherrer JF, Lynskey MT, Madden PA, Bucholz KK, Heath AC: Risk for initiation of substance use as a function of age of onset of cigarette, alcohol and cannabis use: findings in a Midwestern female twin cohort. Prev Med 2006, 43:125-128.
• [39]Anstey KJ, Hofer SM, Luszcz MA: Cross-sectional and longitudinal patterns of dedifferentiation in late-life cognitive and sensory function: the effects of age, ability, attrition, and occasion of measurement. J Exp Psychol Gen 2003, 132:470-487.
• [40]Arifeen S, Black RE, Antelman G, Baqui A, Caulfield L, Becker S: Exclusive breastfeeding reduces acute respiratory infection and diarrhea deaths among infants in Dhaka slums. Pediatrics 2001, 108:E67.
• [41]Bada HS, Das A, Bauer CR, Shankaran S, Lester B, LaGasse L, Hammond J, Wright LL, Higgins R: Impact of prenatal cocaine exposure on child behavior problems through school age. Pediatrics 2007, 119:e348-359.
• [42]Beesdo K, Bittner A, Pine DS, Stein MB, Hofler M, Lieb R, Wittchen HU: Incidence of social anxiety disorder and the consistent risk for secondary depression in the first three decades of life. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007, 64:903-912.
• [43]Berecki-Gisolf J, Begum N, Dobson AJ: Symptoms reported by women in midlife: menopausal transition or aging? Menopause 2009, 16:1021-1029.
• [44]Blazer DG, Sachs-Ericsson N, Hybels CF: Perception of unmet basic needs as a predictor of depressive symptoms among community-dwelling older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2007, 62:191-195.
• [45]Bray JW, Zarkin GA, Ringwalt C, Qi J: The relationship between marijuana initiation and dropping out of high school. Health Econ 2000, 9:9-18.
• [46]Breslau N, Schultz LR, Johnson EO, Peterson EL, Davis GC: Smoking and the risk of suicidal behavior: a prospective study of a community sample. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005, 62:328-334.
• [47]Brown JW, Liang J, Krause N, Akiyama H, Sugisawa H, Fukaya T: Transitions in living arrangements among elders in Japan: does health make a difference? J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2002, 57:S209-220.
• [48]Bruckl TM, Wittchen HU, Hofler M, Pfister H, Schneider S, Lieb R: Childhood separation anxiety and the risk of subsequent psychopathology: Results from a community study. Psychother Psychosom 2007, 76:47-56.
• [49]Cauley JA, Lui LY, Barnes D, Ensrud KE, Zmuda JM, Hillier TA, Hochberg MC, Schwartz AV, Yaffe K, Cummings SR, Newman AB: Successful skeletal aging: a marker of low fracture risk and longevity. The Study of Osteoporotic Fractures (SOF). J Bone Miner Res 2009, 24:134-143.
• [50]Celentano DD, Munoz A, Cohn S, Vlahov D: Dynamics of behavioral risk factors for HIV/AIDS: a 6-year prospective study of injection drug users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2001, 61:315-322.
• [51]Chao C, Jacobson LP, Tashkin D, Martinez-Maza O, Roth MD, Margolick JB, Chmiel JS, Holloway MN, Zhang ZF, Detels R: Recreational amphetamine use and risk of HIV-related non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Causes Control 2009, 20:509-516.
• [52]Cheung YB, Khoo KS, Karlberg J, Machin D: Association between psychological symptoms in adults and growth in early life: longitudinal follow up study. BMJ 2002, 325:749.
• [53]Chien KL, Hsu HC, Sung FC, Su TC, Chen MF, Lee YT: Hyperuricemia as a risk factor on cardiovascular events in Taiwan: the Chin-Shan Community Cardiovascular Cohort Study. Atherosclerosis 2005, 183:147-155.
• [54]Clays E, De Bacquer D, Leynen F, Kornitzer M, Kittel F, De Backer G: Job stress and depression symptoms in middle-aged workers–prospective results from the Belstress study. Scand J Work Environ Health 2007, 33:252-259.
• [55]Conron KJ, Beardslee W, Koenen KC, Buka SL, Gortmaker SL: A longitudinal study of maternal depression and child maltreatment in a national sample of families investigated by child protective services. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2009, 163:922-930.
• [56]Cuddy TE, Tate RB: Sudden unexpected cardiac death as a function of time since the detection of electrocardiographic and clinical risk factors in apparently healthy men: the Manitoba Follow-Up Study, 1948 to 2004. Can J Cardiol 2006, 22:205-211.
• [57]Daniels MC, Adair LS: Growth in young Filipino children predicts schooling trajectories through high school. J Nutr 2004, 134:1439-1446.
• [58]de Mutsert R, Grootendorst DC, Boeschoten EW, Brandts H, van Manen JG, Krediet RT, Dekker FW: Subjective global assessment of nutritional status is strongly associated with mortality in chronic dialysis patients. Am J Clin Nutr 2009, 89:787-793.
• [59]De Stavola BL, Meade TW: Long-term effects of hemostatic variables on fatal coronary heart disease: 30-year results from the first prospective Northwick Park Heart Study (NPHS-I). J Thromb Haemost 2007, 5:461-471.
• [60]Di Nisio M, Barbui T, Di Gennaro L, Borrelli G, Finazzi G, Landolfi R, Leone G, Marfisi R, Porreca E, Ruggeri M, et al.: The haematocrit and platelet target in polycythemia vera. Br J Haematol 2007, 136:249-259.
• [61]Engberg J, Morral AR: Reducing substance use improves adolescents’ school attendance. Addiction 2006, 101:1741-1751.
• [62]Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ: The developmental antecedents of illicit drug use: evidence from a 25-year longitudinal study. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008, 96:165-177.
• [63]Fung TT, Malik V, Rexrode KM, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB: Sweetened beverage consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women. Am J Clin Nutr 2009, 89:1037-1042.
• [64]Gallo WT, Bradley EH, Dubin JA, Jones RN, Falba TA, Teng HM, Kasl SV: The persistence of depressive symptoms in older workers who experience involuntary job loss: results from the health and retirement survey. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2006, 61:S221-228.
• [65]Gauderman WJ, Avol E, Gilliland F, Vora H, Thomas D, Berhane K, McConnell R, Kuenzli N, Lurmann F, Rappaport E, et al.: The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age. N Engl J Med 2004, 351:1057-1067.
• [66]Glotzer TV, Daoud EG, Wyse DG, Singer DE, Ezekowitz MD, Hilker C, Miller C, Qi D, Ziegler PD: The relationship between daily atrial tachyarrhythmia burden from implantable device diagnostics and stroke risk: the TRENDS study. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol 2009, 2:474-480.
• [67]Gunderson EP, Jacobs DR, Chiang V, Lewis CE, Tsai A, Quesenberry CP, Sidney S: Childbearing is associated with higher incidence of the metabolic syndrome among women of reproductive age controlling for measurements before pregnancy: the CARDIA study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2009, 201(177):e171-179.
• [68]Haag MD, Bos MJ, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Breteler MM, Stricker BH: Cyclooxygenase selectivity of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of stroke. Arch Intern Med 2008, 168:1219-1224.
• [69]Hart CL, Hole DJ, Davey Smith G: Are two really better than one? Empirical examination of repeat blood pressure measurements and stroke risk in the Renfrew/Paisley and collaborative studies. Stroke 2001, 32:2697-2699.
• [70]Hogg RS, Bangsberg DR, Lima VD, Alexander C, Bonner S, Yip B, Wood E, Dong WW, Montaner JS, Harrigan PR: Emergence of drug resistance is associated with an increased risk of death among patients first starting HAART. PLoS Med 2006, 3:e356.
• [71]Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ, Connell CJ, Rodriguez C, Henley SJ, Feigelson HS, Patel AV, Flanders WD, Calle EE: Aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and breast cancer incidence in a large U.S. cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005, 14:261-264.
• [72]Jamrozik E, Knuiman MW, James A, Divitini M, Musk AW: Risk factors for adult-onset asthma: a 14-year longitudinal study. Respirology 2009, 14:814-821.
• [73]Jimenez M, Krall EA, Garcia RI, Vokonas PS, Dietrich T: Periodontitis and incidence of cerebrovascular disease in men. Ann Neurol 2009, 66:505-512.
• [74]Juhaeri , Stevens J, Chambless LE, Nieto FJ, Jones D, Schreiner P, Arnett D, Cai J: Associations of weight loss and changes in fat distribution with the remission of hypertension in a bi-ethnic cohort: the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Prev Med 2003, 36:330-339.
• [75]Karlamangla A, Zhou K, Reuben D, Greendale G, Moore A: Longitudinal trajectories of heavy drinking in adults in the United States of America. Addiction 2006, 101:91-99.
• [76]Keller MC, Neale MC, Kendler KS: Association of different adverse life events with distinct patterns of depressive symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 2007, 164:1521-1529. quiz 1622
• [77]Kersting RC: Impact of social support, diversity, and poverty on nursing home utilization in a nationally representative sample of older Americans. Soc Work Health Care 2001, 33:67-87.
• [78]Lacson E, Wang W, Lazarus JM, Hakim RM: Change in vascular access and mortality in maintenance hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis 2009, 54:912-921.
• [79]Lamarca R, Ferrer M, Andersen PK, Liestol K, Keiding N, Alonso J: A changing relationship between disability and survival in the elderly population: differences by age. J Clin Epidemiol 2003, 56:1192-1201.
• [80]Lawson DW, Mace R: Sibling configuration and childhood growth in contemporary British families. Int J Epidemiol 2008, 37:1408-1421.
• [81]Lee DH, Ha MH, Kam S, Chun B, Lee J, Song K, Boo Y, Steffen L, Jacobs DR: A strong secular trend in serum gamma-glutamyltransferase from 1996 to 2003 among South Korean men. Am J Epidemiol 2006, 163:57-65.
• [82]Lee DS, Evans JC, Robins SJ, Wilson PW, Albano I, Fox CS, Wang TJ, Benjamin EJ, D’Agostino RB, Vasan RS: Gamma glutamyl transferase and metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, and mortality risk: the Framingham Heart Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007, 27:127-133.
• [83]Li G, Higdon R, Kukull WA, Peskind E, Van Valen Moore K, Tsuang D, van Belle G, McCormick W, Bowen JD, Teri L, et al.: Statin therapy and risk of dementia in the elderly: a community-based prospective cohort study. Neurology 2004, 63:1624-1628.
• [84]Li LW, Conwell Y: Effects of changes in depressive symptoms and cognitive functioning on physical disability in home care elders. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2009, 64:230-236.
• [85]Limburg PJ, Anderson KE, Johnson TW, Jacobs DR, Lazovich D, Hong CP, Nicodemus KK, Folsom AR: Diabetes mellitus and subsite-specific colorectal cancer risks in the Iowa Women’s Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2005, 14:133-137.
• [86]Luchenski S, Quesnel-Vallee A, Lynch J: Differences between women’s and men’s socioeconomic inequalities in health: longitudinal analysis of the Canadian population, 1994–2003. J Epidemiol Community Health 2008, 62:1036-1044.
• [87]Melamed ML, Eustace JA, Plantinga L, Jaar BG, Fink NE, Coresh J, Klag MJ, Powe NR: Changes in serum calcium, phosphate, and PTH and the risk of death in incident dialysis patients: a longitudinal study. Kidney Int 2006, 70:351-357.
• [88]Menotti A, Lanti M, Kromhout D, Blackburn H, Jacobs D, Nissinen A, Dontas A, Kafatos A, Nedeljkovic S, Adachi H: Homogeneity in the relationship of serum cholesterol to coronary deaths across different cultures: 40-year follow-up of the Seven Countries Study. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2008, 15:719-725.
• [89]Michaelsson K, Olofsson H, Jensevik K, Larsson S, Mallmin H, Berglund L, Vessby B, Melhus H: Leisure physical activity and the risk of fracture in men. PLoS Med 2007, 4:e199.
• [90]Michaud DS, Liu Y, Meyer M, Giovannucci E, Joshipura K: Periodontal disease, tooth loss, and cancer risk in male health professionals: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Oncol 2008, 9:550-558.
• [91]Mirzaei M, Taylor R, Morrell S, Leeder SR: Predictors of blood pressure in a cohort of school-aged children. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil 2007, 14:624-629.
• [92]Mishra GD, McNaughton SA, Bramwell GD, Wadsworth ME: Longitudinal changes in dietary patterns during adult life. Br J Nutr 2006, 96:735-744.
• [93]Monda KL, Adair LS, Zhai F, Popkin BM: Longitudinal relationships between occupational and domestic physical activity patterns and body weight in China. Eur J Clin Nutr 2008, 62:1318-1325.
• [94]Moss SE, Klein R, Klein BE: Long-term incidence of dry eye in an older population. Optom Vis Sci 2008, 85:668-674.
• [95]Nabi H, Consoli SM, Chastang JF, Chiron M, Lafont S, Lagarde E: Type A behavior pattern, risky driving behaviors, and serious road traffic accidents: a prospective study of the GAZEL cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2005, 161:864-870.
• [96]Nakano T, Tatemichi M, Miura Y, Sugita M, Kitahara K: Long-term physiologic changes of intraocular pressure: a 10-year longitudinal analysis in young and middle-aged Japanese men. Ophthalmology 2005, 112:609-616.
• [97]Nowicki MJ, Vigen C, Mack WJ, Seaberg E, Landay A, Anastos K, Young M, Minkoff H, Greenblatt R, Levine AM: Association of cells with natural killer (NK) and NKT immunophenotype with incident cancers in HIV-infected women. AIDS Res Hum Retrovir 2008, 24:163-168.
• [98]Ormel J, Oldehinkel AJ, Vollebergh W: Vulnerability before, during, and after a major depressive episode: a 3-wave population-based study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2004, 61:990-996.
• [99]Rabbitt P, Lunn M, Wong D, Cobain M: Sudden declines in intelligence in old age predict death and dropout from longitudinal studies. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2008, 63:P205-P211.
• [100]Randolph JF, Sowers M, Bondarenko I, Gold EB, Greendale GA, Bromberger JT, Brockwell SE, Matthews KA: The relationship of longitudinal change in reproductive hormones and vasomotor symptoms during the menopausal transition. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:6106-6112.
• [101]Rousseau MC, Abrahamowicz M, Villa LL, Costa MC, Rohan TE, Franco EL: Predictors of cervical coinfection with multiple human papillomavirus types. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2003, 12:1029-1037.
• [102]Ryu S, Chang Y, Woo HY, Lee KB, Kim SG, Kim DI, Kim WS, Suh BS, Jeong C, Yoon K: Time-dependent association between metabolic syndrome and risk of CKD in Korean men without hypertension or diabetes. Am J Kidney Dis 2009, 53:59-69.
• [103]Seid M, Varni JW, Cummings L, Schonlau M: The impact of realized access to care on health-related quality of life: a two-year prospective cohort study of children in the California State Children’s Health Insurance Program. J Pediatr 2006, 149:354-361.
• [104]Silfverdal SA, Ehlin A, Montgomery SM: Protection against clinical pertussis induced by whole-cell pertussis vaccination is related to primo-immunisation intervals. Vaccine 2007, 25:7510-7515.
• [105]Spence SH, Najman JM, Bor W, O’Callaghan MJ, Williams GM: Maternal anxiety and depression, poverty and marital relationship factors during early childhood as predictors of anxiety and depressive symptoms in adolescence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2002, 43:457-469.
• [106]Stewart R, Xue QL, Masaki K, Petrovitch H, Ross GW, White LR, Launer LJ: Change in blood pressure and incident dementia: a 32-year prospective study. Hypertension 2009, 54:233-240.
• [107]Strasak AM, Kelleher CC, Klenk J, Brant LJ, Ruttmann E, Rapp K, Concin H, Diem G, Pfeiffer KP, Ulmer H: Longitudinal change in serum gamma-glutamyltransferase and cardiovascular disease mortality: a prospective population-based study in 76,113 Austrian adults. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2008, 28:1857-1865.
• [108]Strawbridge WJ, Cohen RD, Shema SJ: Comparative strength of association between religious attendance and survival. Int J Psychiatry Med 2000, 30:299-308.
• [109]Sung M, Erkanli A, Angold A, Costello EJ: Effects of age at first substance use and psychiatric comorbidity on the development of substance use disorders. Drug Alcohol Depend 2004, 75:287-299.
• [110]Tehard B, Lahmann PH, Riboli E, Clavel-Chapelon F: Anthropometry, breast cancer and menopausal status: use of repeated measurements over 10 years of follow-up-results of the French E3N women’s cohort study. Int J Cancer 2004, 111:264-269.
• [111]Vikan T, Johnsen SH, Schirmer H, Njolstad I, Svartberg J: Endogenous testosterone and the prospective association with carotid atherosclerosis in men: the Tromso study. Eur J Epidemiol 2009, 24:289-295.
• [112]Wang NY, Young JH, Meoni LA, Ford DE, Erlinger TP, Klag MJ: Blood pressure change and risk of hypertension associated with parental hypertension: the Johns Hopkins Precursors Study. Arch Intern Med 2008, 168:643-648.